W1A001K LINGUA FRANCAS. Africa is populated with a lot of people that speak different/divergent languages. Starting from the family languages: Nilotes, Bantu, Kushites which are broken further into smaller language groups. However all these people they communicate somehow with a language that is understandable among them. Such a language is called a lingua franca. Fromkin V and Rodman R, (1988) p 271 propose too that lingua Franca Therefore English, Swahili are lingua francas in Kenya since many people with different languages can speak them. They continue to give us an example of how a lingua franca can occur apart from learning this in school. They say "In medieval times a trade language came into use in the Mediterranean ports. It consisted of Italian mixed with french><+_French>, Spanish, Greek and Arabic, and it was called lingua franca, "Frankish language" (Op cit) Thus pidgins can also be a lingua franca so long as people are using it widely and of different languages. Africa and especially East and West Africa there was a lot of trade going on such that people from other areas had to use a Common language to understand one another in business deals. That is why some lingua francas are called "trade languages". For example in East Africa Swahili is used as a lingua franca in almost all market places while in West Africa Hausa is the lingua Franca. As I said before lingua francas arise when there is a need of communication between/among groups with different languages. English speaking Africans were scarce when Asian came to Kenya. Asians thus had no choice as to learn English: Swahili was added by all in order to communicate with African servants in all places and it became a medium of communication. A lingua franca doesn't mean one who speaks knows each and every rule of it but brings out the aspect of being understood. For example: The Asian Swahili: Standard Swahili: Thus in conclusion a habitual language used at a place is a lingua franca. In South Africa for example the lingua francas there are Fanagalo, Nyanja, Twsana and Towubemba; In West Africa: Yaunde and Duala; in Central Sudan and North Africa there is Zande and in East Africa there are Swahili, Ganda (in Uganda), Amharic (in Ethiopia) and English. I could thus also agree with Bailey R.W and Robinson J.L (1973) p. 73 as It can even be English in the Phillipaes><+_Philippines> and India, or Swahili in Kenya, English in Uganda and Kenya or the Zande in North Africa. PIDGIN AND CREOLES. "... missionaries and traders from one part of the world have visited and attempted to communicate with peoples residing in another area. In such cases the contacts is too specialised and the cultures too widely separated for the usual lingua franca to arise. Instead the two (or possibly more) groups use their native languages as a basis for a rudimentary language of few lexical items and "straight forward" grammatical rules. Such a "marginal language" is called a pidgin". The above quote is from Fromkin V and Rodman R, (1988), p. 272. Let us take some cultures therefore like the French in contact with Africa or English and Africa have formed such that some words are borrowed from other languages thus simplifying a language. A language that arises from this process is new and is called a pidgin. One such language, pidgin is Tok Pisin (Used in Papua New Guinea) This like other pidgins the lexical items relie><+_rely> mostly on English. There is some grammar in pidgins though not thorough rudimentary. Like any language it has phonological system that is governed by rules. Fromkin V and Rodman R, (1988), p. 272. gives an example of Tok Pisin " [C] ,[Š] and [S], are all possible pronounciations> of the phoneme /S/ [masien], [masien] and [macien] all mean the "machine". This shows us that pidgin language is actually simplified. With their small vocabulary (-ies) however, pidgins are not good at expressing fine distinctions of meaning. Case, tense, mode, voice are generally absent from pidgins. Though the set of language is always simpler in pidgins. In Cameroon (cp) pidgin, the pronoun system does not show gender or all the case differs that exist in standard English. The characteristics of one pidgin differs from one pidgin to the other depending on the native language of the pidgin speaker. Robert A Hall gives the distinctinction><+_distinction> between Pidgin and lingua franca p. 91 'Any tongue serving as a means of communication is a lingua franca but a pidgin is a lingua franca that in the course of its adoption has become simplified and restructured used.' (Pidgin). Robert A Hall, in Bailey's R.W, 1973. p.91 says this about the development of pidgin. He says that the second side of pidgin language is Creole. This tells us that a Creole is found after a pidgin. A pidgin adds new words, complex in vocabulary than pidgin. A Creole can be a language on its own and *infact> different Creoles are formed depending on the number of pidgins. Thus when a pidgin actually has people to speak it as a language it's a Creole. This can happen if pidgin speakers are put together away from their mother tongues. This was the case during slavery so that the slave masters wanted to make sure they didn't plot against them. And when they needed to communicate therefore they had to use pidgin. Again the gave birth to children who learnt and acquired that pidgin and thus a Creole. This is the case with West Africa during slave trade. The Creole Speakers sometimes favour their nationality. For example in Sierra Leon they don't borrow most of English words because of national solidarity while others refuse or can't even remember their mother tongue for example Haiti use only french><+_French> in outside contacts. Pidgin language is short lived. (Op Cit p. 92) explains that pidgin is increasing its words. Thus I can sum up by saying that a pidgin is a (op Cit p.93) The users may stop using native and use pidgin solely and then when they intermarry and children grow up knowing pidgin as mother tongue, this becomes a Creole. The vocabulary must expand to accommodate it's users' everyday needs. Example of Creole is Africaan (S. Africa). Pidgin's spellings are based on phonemes. For example Melanesian pidgin, the English Sentence meaning 'I have books' is "mi get trifela buk" and not "me got three three fellow book" (op. cit 95) Pidgin lack familiar features of well European grammar like tenses, cases and numbers but got other features to make up for them. In languages with W. Africa elements, prefixes replace suffixes as indicators of grammatical relationships. Haitian Creole for instance has no verb tense in our sense. Instead verbs are distinguished by a set of prefixes indicating the continuity or completion of the action performed; while "mwechâte" means 'I sing', "mwê ap-châte" means "I am singing" and mwê "fé k-chatê" (op cit 97). If a language has been simplified thus reconstructed that's a pidgin, but if the pidgin is acquired as a mother tongue then that's a Creole. This has happened in Africa because of the large diversity in languages. Creoles often crossed in slave trade plantations in areas in Africa like Krio in Sierra Leon developed from an English based pidgin. DIALECTS. Africa has a diversity of languages; in them there are sub-languages. One language can have some sub-groups for example Luhya has some divisions like Maragoli, Bukuou and Isukha. The three are able to understand on another in some Kind of way though the language doesn't tally one word by another. These is a form of dialects. These three don't have to be in Kenya, Bukusu's from Uganda and Kenya are the same thus the geographical site of the dialects can vary. Fishman J.A in his book of 'Sociolinguistics' says that (op cit.) He implies that these dialects originated as in the groups originated from one Common place. Like Bantus, down the group are Luhyas who separated to different places that then language started to change. There is a variation in phonology, vocabulary and actual intelligiability><+_intelligibility> (understanding). The further removed the more you don't understand one another. Fromkin V and Rodman R, 1988, p. 253 say . When the dialects are mutually intelligible forms then the speaker can't understand one another. A language associated with a particular social groups like the upper class then it becomes a social dialect. These is usually associated with a particular accent. Fromkin V and Rodman R, 1988, p. 254 says This is an example of how social dialect spreads. Different classes of people have a particular way of talking, socializing. Speakers of sociolect belong to same economic group or similar educational background. This can be of high status or low. This can be termed as Varieties. Every individual speaks with his/her style. There is variation in the presentation of speech and this is known as idiolect. Fromkin V and Rochan R, 1988, p. 253 says: . REGISTER. People have a particular speech or language in certain situations. For example when in court, someone talks differently as one who is in church. The way they utilize the rules of English or any language in that particular context. They are different Varieties and this is what we call registers; depending on the context. It happens to people with the same occupation for example Doctors, lawyers; these people have legal registers. A register distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive by having a number of distinctive words or using certain phrases in a particular way. The vocabulary is very distinctive. An example of religious register is as follows: There is in this register the use a of number of theological terms: Glory be to, has exalted thine, leave us not comfortless - ...' This formula of religious language is usually seen in the ending too when they say . This is from Crystals D and Dary D, 'Investigating English Style' p. 95-193. Another example of a register of broadcast talks and news has rigid conditions on the user. The writer has to ensure that his material can be easily jointed and must avoid anything which would disturb entire fluency such as ambigous><+_ambiguous> structures that could read us (I'm sorry I'll read that again), tongue twisting etc. He must make sure that his material can be understood and the listener cannot ask for a repeat. In newspaper reports there is the need for Compression of Information to limited space and also there is need for clarity and avoidance of ambiguity. No wonder a headline should contain clear, succinct and intriguing message to speckle interest in the reader. W1A002K 1. Lingua Franca A lingua franca is a common language which is habitually used as a medium of communication between groups and people whose mother tongues are different. One language comes to be adapted as the medium of some activity or activities which the different language communities perform in common. It may be a common language for commerce, learning, administration, religion or any or all of a variety of purposes: the use determines which determines which members of each language community are the ones who learn it. Languages such as English or Russian, which are widely learnt as second languages in the world today are a type of lingua franca. They are a special case only in the sense that they are being learnt by *unprecedentedly> large numbers of people and for a very wide range of purposes. There can be the emergence of one dialect as a lingua Franca. William J. Samarin in an article 'Lingua Francas of the world' found in a book by J. Fishman, 'Reading in the sociology of language' defines a lingua franca as An additional requirement included in some *defination> is that a lingua franca be a pidgin language (a so called "hybrid" or " mixed" language), but it is not true that all lingua francas are pidgins. A second requirement sometimes found is that a lingua franca be used for commercial purposes but this is again not true of lingua francas, though they frequently arise in a commercial environment. Other terms compete with lingua Franca as designations for the kind of language being discussed. Trade languages is usually used for some languages not included among the world's majority languages and which is used by some people as a second language in commercial situations. All trade languages are therefore lingua francas e.g. Kituba and Hausa in Africa. Contact languages is a lingua franca whose use is not necessarily habitual. It is the most neutral of the terms. International (or universal) language is a lingua franca whose use is actually or virtually international. Some writers however make the error of using it of lingua francas indiscriminately, even of those with restricted use e. g. English, French. Auxiliary language is generally meant to describe an artificially devised lingua franca e.g. Esperanto. Since a lingua franca is simply a language used to communicate across linguistic barriers, it can itself be any kind of a language; natural, pidginized, or planned. Aramaic is a lingua franca which was used in Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Arabic served as a lingua franca in some places following the Muslim conquests. Hausa, a Chadic language serves as a trade language in Dahomey, Togo, Ghana, upper Volta, Nigeria and the Cameroons. In Africa several languages belonging to the Niger-Congo family have served or are now serving as lingua francas, such as Banbara and Fulani in the west and Ngbandi in northern Congo. Swahili and Lingala are also included here. Should there ever be an international lingua franca, one thing is almost certain: like all lingua francas before it, it will pass through a stage of pidginization. 2. Dialects. According to Joshua Fishman in his book 'Reading in the sociology of language', : Different groups of people within the language community speak different dialects. Dialects tend to differ primarily and always to some extent in substance. A dialect represents the total range of patterns used by a person's section of the language community. Dialects differ in vocabulary, syntax and phonology. Dialects may also differ in several ways with respect to rule content. Joshua Whatmaugh asserts that the distinction between Kindred dialects and Kindred languages is a matter of degree. The test is intelligibility. When communication is disturbed between speakers we say that we have to do with related dialects. When it is completely broken, related languages. Speakers of Standard English and German are mutually incomprehensible but speakers of Standard English and a variety of English are known as 'lowland scots' understand one another well although they may encounter dificulties><+_difficulties>. Dialects may be classified into: 1. Regional dialects They are geographical and indicate your region of origin. They are usually grouped by the community into major dialect areas. There may be considerable differentiation within each area. 2. Social dialects There are two types. Standard English - Formal English e.g. in writing of essays. Code switching is not allowed. Received Pronounciation><+_Pronunciation> - it is the standard spoken variety i.e. the Queen's English. It is associated with the aristocracy. 3. Register dialects This is the variety according to use i.e. the use that you put to a language, for what it is being used for and not who is using it. Examples are legal register, sports language etc. Registers According to J. Fishman in his book 'Readings in the sociology of language' . The category of 'register' is needed when we want to account for what people do with their language. When we observe language activity in the various contexts in which it takes place, we find differences in the type of language selected as appropriate to different kinds of situations. A sports commentary and a church service are linguistically quite distinct. Registers differ in form. Some registers have distinctive features at other levels, such as the voice quality associated with the register of church services. The crucial criteria of any given register are to be found in its grammar and its lexis. Probably lexical features are the most obvious - some lexical items suffice almost by themselves to identify a certain register: 'cleanse' puts us in the language of advertising, 'probe' of newspapers etc. The clearest signals of a particular register are scientific technical terms, except those that belong to more than one science, like 'morphology' in biology and linguistics. Purely grammatical distinctions between the different registers are less striking, yet there can be considerable variation in grammar also. Often it's not the lexical items that is specific to one register. Sometimes, for example in the language of advertising, it is the combination of grammatical and lexical features that is distinctive. Registers are not marginal or special varieties of language. Between them they cover the total range of our language activity. It is only by reference to the various situations and situation types in which language is used that we can understand its functioning and its effectiveness - Language is not realised in the abstract: It is realised in the activity of people in situations, as linguistic events which are manifested in a particular dialect and register. A great deal of grammatical and lexical material is common to many of the registers of a given Language, and some perhaps to all. There tends to be more difference between events in different registers than between different events in one register. It is by their formal properties that registers are defined. Registers can be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and style of discourse. 'Field of discourse' refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the Language activity. 'Mode of discourse' refers to the medium or mode of language activity. 'Style of discourse' which refers to the relations among the participants. Some registers are extremely restricted in purpose. 4. Creoles and Pidgins. Heine B in his book 'status and use of African lingua francas' says that a creole is a lingua franca which has attained mother tongue status. Pidginisation is a process where a language is simplified, reducing the irregularities in the language. For example the past tense of see would be seed instead of saw. This process comes about when people who speak different languages come together. The need to simplify the language becomes neccesary><+_necessary>. Most pidgins came about as a result of colonial expansion. Pidgins developed in multi-lingual settings to facilitate inter-group communication. Pidgins also came about as a result of the slave trade. Different people from different communities came together. They had to form a simplified language for the purpose of communication. Pidgin English is the most common name given to a lingua franca spoken throughout west Africa from Sierra Leone to the Gabon. It is a medium of communication for African peoples who have no first language in common, for white men of various ethnic backgrounds and for the west African working man, trader and transient people. G.A. Schneider in his book 'West/African Pidgin-English' says that pidgin-English is not a mere simplification of English but a separate and describable language. Its vocabulary is predominantly English-based, but these lexical forms have changed their meaning to fit into the value system and world view of the African people. Cameroonian pidgin English has a few characteristics. They drop a consonant in word or syllable. They also insert a vowel sound between certain English consonant clusters making for a different phonetic statement. Cameroonian speakers of broad pidgin-English simplify the English vowel system by contrasting fewer vowel sounds, eliminating the diphthongs through clippings and shortening of vowel - like glides, dropping unstressed vowels in initial position. The accentual system - stress and terminal markers -- remains quite similar to that of English for English speakers of pidgin. Tone, high and low contrasts, however, mark the pidgin-English speakers among the Cameroonian people. This characteristic of certain coexisting prosodic features does not make for unintelligibility since code-switching conventions and redundancy help overcome most communication difficulties. Absent in pidgin-English are the English singular - plural markers and time-markers in verbs. There are no native speakers of pidgin-English but there is fairly large group that uses it constantly. According to Hymes, D in his book 'Pidginization and Creolization of languages' a pidgin is 'a contact vernacular, normally not the native language of any of its speakers.' Creoles A Creole is a pidgin that has acquired mother tongue status. It can develop from a pidgin in two ways: 1) Where speakers of a pidgin are put together and can no longer communicate in their mother tongues. This happened mainly during the slave trade where the slave masters separated people who spoke the same mother tongue to avoid them plotting against their masters. 2) Where a pidgin becomes a useful means of communication and they extend it and use it in their homes. In West Africa creolization was forced because of the slave trade. The differences between a creole and a pidgin are not many. They arise due to the fact that the creole functions as a mother tongue and therefore has a larger vocabulary. It would also exhibit or show a greater stylistic range. It is also used in more domains. The creole would be more spoken at a faster rate. It would be more expressive. It needs to be more flexible and innovative. It must express a whole range of human experience. It has a more elaborate syntactic structure as compared to a pidgin. If a creole was allowed to develop in isolation from the target language, it would also become a distinct language from the standard English. David Decamp in an article 'Introduction: The study of pidgin and creole languages' says that the term creole originally meant a white man of European descent born and raised in a tropical or semi-tropical colony. Only later was the meaning extended to include indigenous natives and others of non-European origin e.g. African slaves. Most creoles are European based, i.e. each has derived most of its vocabulary from one or more european><+_European> languages. Creole French and creole English are the most frequent in west Africa and the free world, but Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese are common in other parts of the world. A creole is inferior to its corresponding standard language only in social status. Most west African creoles are said to be free variant. They also get rid of redundancies, extra work and make it simple. Numerically the largest are the French-based creoles. English creoles are used in West Africa, in the Cameroons and in Sierra Leone. According to Robert Hall in his book 'Pidgin and Creole languages' Creoles began as a sort of baby-talk used by masters, plantation owners and merchants to communicate with their servants, slaves and customers. Each speaker deliberately mutilated the standard language by eliminating all grammatical inflections, reducing the number of phonological and syntactic contrasts, and limiting the vocabulary to a few hundred words. W1A003K Africa is made up of diverse number of languages. These languages can also be divided up to language families depending on their origins. We have four major language families in Africa. (i) Niger-Kordofonian, is in central and Eastern Africa. (ii) Nilo-Saharan, most of them being found in E. Africa. (iii) Afro-Asiatic, this is mainly spoken at the Northern parts of Africa. (iv) Khoisan, this group is found in Southern Africa characterised by 'click' sounds. The classification of these languages was done basically on phonological resemblances><+_resemblance>. (a) LINGUA FRANCAS. A lingua Franca is understood as a common language used as a medium of communication between groups of people with different mother tongues. For a language to become a lingua Franca there must be reasons for the need to use it by the groups involved. There are three main reasons why people develop Lingua francas. The language used as a Lingua franca can be even one of the mother tongues which has strong impact on others. The main reasons why Lingua Francas developed was due to: - Trade; people needed a language they could use in trade with their neighbours. There was no way they could interact with each other without a common language between them to facilitate trade. - Communication; When different communities live in a given environment they are bound to meet their neighbours who use a different mother tongue. So there rose a need for an intermediate language which could be understood by the involved groups to facilitate communication between them. - Administration; During the colonial period the colonialists introduced and imposed certain languages on the colonised so as to ease their administrative work over the colonised. This also applied to African leaders. For example the Ganda dominated the Basoga and Toro forcing them also to start using Ganda as their administrative language. Thus Ganda language developed into a Lingua franca. A lingua franca as a rule has its origin in a natural language, which is learned by people speaking other languages as their mother tongues, and is habitually used by them as their second language. A lingua franca can be differentiated from the mother tongue by the fact of its having to undergo a process defined as simplification or pidginization. The spread of African Lingua francas differs considerably according to age, sex and vocation of the speakers of that particular lingua franca and it also fluctuates from one language to the other. Use of lingua francas among the older people and children declines, it is predominantly the language of the working youth. The spread of lingua francas can highly be attributed to schools because lingua francas have become learning languages in schools. Thus, the male population are the ones more exposed to lingua francas than women because most of the school attendants are males and also males have greater mobility in comparison to women thus they have more inter-ethnic contacts. The spread of lingua francas usually takes root among the languages which are closely related to it more than among other languages. For example Swahili spread more particularly among the Bantu domains. AFRICAN LINGUA FRANCAS.; We have a considerable number of lingua francas spoken in Africa and grouped according to where they are used or their situation. (a) South Africa: In this region we have seven distinct lingua francas being used. (i) Fomagalo:- This is a language which was refered><+_referred> to as 'coolie language' or at times 'Indian language'. This language has been used as kitchen language between Europeans and their African servants. So if was develop to facilitate the master - servant interaction between white masters and their African servants. It derives its vocabulary from Nguni (Bantu), English and Afrikaans. It spread into Rhodesia, Zambia and Katanga. Presently it is being used in the north and east of South Africa, Burbau, East London, Rhodesia, Copperbelt of Zambia and Katanga. (ii) Tswana: This is a Bantu Language and it is the official language of Botswana. Though it is also one of the lingua francas, it is restricted. This is because there are other six Bantu languages being spoken in this province. (iii) Lozi: This is also a Bantu language. It has some other names it is also being refered><+_referred> to as Rozi, Kololo and Sikolo. It gained ground at the Upper Zambezi as a forced rule on people by Sebitwana. It was mainly spread by young men from noble families. It spread to Anglia later on. (iv) Umbundu: This is the language of Ovimbundu inhabiting Benguela highlands South of Angola. It is a Bantu language. It also spread along the coast and in the interior along the railway line. (v) Lwena: It is a Bantu language. It is spoken as a lingua franca in eastern Angola, South-Western Congo and the north-western part of Zambia. It spread due to movement of labourers. It is being used now in Zambia as language of education. (vi) Town Bemba: This is a Bantu language group. It is used in the copperbelt in towns of Ndola, Kitwe, Nkana, Chingola, Mufulira, Luasha and Kabulushi. (vii) Nyanja This is the predominant language in Malawi and it is also a Bantu language. Presently it is being used in Malawi, eastern Zambia, Mozambique and parts of Rhodesia. This language is divided into various dialects eg. - Mang'anja:- found in the South-East. - Cewa:- found in the west. - lake Nyanja:- found in the north-east. (b) Congo Basin: In this region we have three lingua francas being used namely; (i) Luba: lingua franca. This compromises of a multiplicity of Bantu languages. It should not be mistaken with the Tshihiba language. This language is divided into dialects e.g. Western, Central, Eastern and Southern dialects. The western dialect is the most important and is the one being used in schools. It is used in the areas like Auluaburg, Bukwanga, Tshikapa, Lusanbo (ii) Kituba. This language also belongs to the Bantu group. This language is used in Congo. It also variable numbers of dialects. (iii) Lingala: This is also refered><+_referred> to as the language of the river. It belongs to the Ngala group of the Bantu. This language is spoken in the banks of Congo River between Kinshasa and Basoko. It has many dialects depending on ethnic and social differences. (c) Eastern Africa In this group also we have three lingua francas: (i) Swahili: This language developed at the coast refered><+_referred> to by the Arabs as the coast language. This language belongs to the group of Bantu languages. The language has a large number of dialects the written language being based on Unguja dialect found in Zanzibar. In order to develop into a lingua franca this language underwent three stages - The spread along the coast region. - Its penetration into the interior of the continent. - Its development since arrival of colonial powers. This language is basically used in East Africa. It is believed to have developed due to the intermarrying between the Arabs and Persians with African women. The women learnt some Arabic words and used them when communicating to their Arabic husbands while men also learn some Bantu words which they used when communicating with their Bantu wives. So the children born to them grew up knowing a few words from Bantu and Arabic languages. So theirs was a mixture of words. Kiswahili then developed from the mixture of words from generation to generation creating the language. The slaves also contributed to the development of Kiswahli language. This is because they were from different ethnic communities and now when they came together they needed a language for interaction. This language is believed to have been spoken first at Lamu Island. it developed into a lingua franca when the traders started penetrating the interior of the continent. It attained special importance when it was made the lingua franca of the Zenj empire. The spread of Kiswahili into the interior was simple because it was meeting Bantus who had some of their words mixed in the language making it easy for them to learn. It became strongly established first among the Nyamwezi because they were traders at that particular period. Its penetration into the interior was favoured by the epidemic which hit the Maasai community who had been a stumbling block to the traders who were flying the interior of the continent. The descendants of the first Swahili speakers grew up using it as their mother tongue. Swahili is one of the languages in East Africa with the largest number of dialects. These dialects are classified according to the place they are used. eg. * Killnguja:- This is the dialect of Kiswahili used in Zanzibar and is also the widely used dialect and the accepted standard dialect for education. * Kimrima:- This is the dialect of the Mrima coast and various areas from Vanga nearly to Kilwa. It is a combination of German and Swahili. * Kimgao:- This is the dialect used at the Mgao coast from Kilwa Southwards. Some speakers of this dialect are also found around lake Nyosa. It also borrows words from its neighbours. * Kihadimu and Kitumbatu:- These are dialects used outside the town of Zanzibar. Kihadima is used in the east and southern part of the island and it is the same dialect being refered><+_referred> to as Kitumbatu in the north. * Kipemba: This is the dialect used in the Island of Pemba. It is more related to the original dialect of the Pemba inhabitants because it draws most of the words from the old inhabitants of the island. * Kimvita:- This is the dialect used by the peoples of Mombasa. It also extends from Malindi in the north to Grasi in the South. There is a big difference between it and Kiunguja than the other dialects. it has drawn most of ist Bantu words from Kinyika and Kigiriama. * Kimrita:- This is the dialect used by the people of Mombasa. It also extends from Malindi in the north to Gasi in the south. There is a big difference between it and Kiunguja than the other dialects. It has drawn most of its Bantu words from Kinyika and Kigiriama. * Kirumba:- This is the dialect used by people of Vanga and Wasini Island. It has close relationship with Kimvita the difference is only on the places the two dialects are being used. * Kiamu:- This is the dialect use at Lamu and at the Island of Amu. * Kipate:- This is the dialect used by people living in the Island of Pate. Its grammar and change of words is almost similar to that of Kiamu dialect. * Kishela:- This is the dialect used at Shela South of Amu. This dialect seems to fall as an intermediate between the Amu and Pate dialects, this is mainly because the people who developed it were from Amu and Pate and they jointly formed the town of Shela. * Kisin:- This dialect is used in the town of Sin. This dialect is used between Plate and Faza. Their grammar is closely related to the Amu dialect. It bears strong resemblance to Bajun group. * Kitikuu: This is the dialect used by the people of Rasini and the people of the mainland north of Amu. (ii) Ganda:- This is the predominate language of Uganda. It also belongs to the Bantu language group. It developed to a lingua franca mainly due to two reasons: - Buganda Kingdom came under British influence earlier than other parts of Uganda. So the British choose Ganda as administrators over the other neighbouring territories thus Ganda language became the language of administration. - Ganda language also was introduced as the language of education in schools so when roads and schools were constructed (they were first constructed in the Buganda Kingdom) many people came to learn thus going back to their homes with knowledge in Ganda language. Religious instructions were also in Ganda language. Thus in the thirties Kiganda had become the language of the press, radio and administration. The main reason why Ganda managed to become a lingua franca in Uganda was because the Ganda people resisted strongly to the introduction of Swahili in their territory because they feared that it would undermine their language. So it has taken a stronghold on the Southern part of Uganda. It has very little influence over the northern parts of Uganda. W1A004K Humour is that quality of action, speech, or writing, which excites amusement; oddity, jocularity, fractiousness, *comicality> or fun. Thence a humorous person is one whose ability to amuse comes out in a most natural manner. Literary critics would argue that this naturalness is realised if it is context-specific-humour is borne of a situation in which what is said, written, or done, is both appealing and exciting to what is taking place. The difference between humour and wit is that the former is less purely intellectual and has a sympathetic quality in virtue of which it often becomes allied to pathos. (Pathos, especially as related to ancient Greek art, is that quality of the transient or emotional, as opposed to the permanent or ideal). In his book Times Beyond Omondi Mak'Oloo has employed the style of humour and this, it goes without saying, has therefore made his book enjoyable to read as it arouses one's senses just as he tends to feel bored. In fact, and where upon substantiation will follow, one might conclude that it is this style that makes it possible to read through the novel in a relatively shorter time. The character, Waweru, is flabbergasted by the hardness of Hungarian bread. Whereas to Erika this seems not a problem, to Waweru it is a source of disgust. What more with waking up hungry and dying to dig your teeth into some soft, fleshy bit of bread when voilà! at the touch of it your appetite almost fails you. In this situation he finds himself questioning Erika's rationale - that one needs only cover it in nylon and it will stay soft and fresh. But is that what Waweru gets? To this effect he finds it more appropriate or easier to use an electric saw to cut, although he does not actually do it - it is merely his view vis-à-vis keeping the loaf covered. Mak'Oloo has employed a hyberbole to emphasise the "hardness" of the bread. Waweru admits that he is tired with what he calls the tendency of the average Hungarian, the not - so - well - travelled citizen, who to believe that all Africans are Nigerians! Just after a nasty encounter with some Hungarian youth, aboard some lorry, he is confronted by a Hungarian woman whose attention has been drawn by the shouting. The Hungarians, burning with racism, have called him names and Waweru has not spared them either, paying tit for tat in some good Hungarian. Her first reaction is that Waweru is Nigerian. The humour behind this statement to one who knows that Africa is made up of a great many number of countries is the ignorance so exposed. Waweru is not afraid of sparring with Csaba. Or so it seems. However, he confesses to the reader that he is afraid of him because of his physical fitness and his stamina in the boxing ring. Before his "match" with Csaba he withdraws to the reader to tell him that even though the others cannot notice his fright of what is to befall him he is AFRAID!: When the garlic-smelling man informs Waweru of the Arabs' disturbing his girlfriend, Erika, Waweru takes a long time to return back to the restaurant, at least in a hurry, ostensibly because to him Hungarians have a habit of suddenly turning friendly once drunk. That they would not notice one even if he stepped on their toes when they are sober. But once they have gulped a litre or so of PÁLINKA or TOKAI they "realise" that you are their comrade and it is then that they want to know the latest news from Africa. Coincidentally, the revelation of this prejudice comes to drive one gradually to the climax - the ultimate, the fight with the racist Arabs. The interaction between the sexes does not seem to favour the African male students. There is a permanent shortage of African girls because the men outnumber them by far. Waweru graphically describes the imbalance which he summarises in his statement that before the start of an academic year the usual question that is asked is how many "relief supplies" will be imported from motherland Africa. At Szechenyi furdö, the beautiful open air public bath, Waweru meets Erika, Kovacs and his girlfriend Zsuzsa. He admits, or more appropriately, confesses to the reader that the whites are surprised to see a black person, him. Albeit they are at first amazed they soon realise that he is a human being - he does not have a tail and he has five toes on each foot. At the meeting of the African students at the common room adjacent to Mustafa's on the tenth floor of the hostel in Zugló people are disordered. We are told that all the Accra market women combined cannot make so much hullaballoo. Everybody is talking - laughing, joking, arguing or calling one another. Now Mustafa is the President of the students association. But despite this his attempts to bring order into the meeting is initially frustrated by his colleagues who keep on shouting. What is more, there is this young girl who keeps on calling on him to pay her back some 500 Forint. She tells Mustafa to climb down from the table and come to her. She says she needs the money for her visa for her London trip. Mustafa in his attempt to bring some order amongst the gathering loses his temper at the arrogance displayed by his colleagues. Jumping up and down the table he breaks the top board and ends up on the ground. Martha offers him some liniment. Mustafa is perhaps attracted to her and says sheepishly that although his shin feels okay the pain might persist later "perhaps after the meeting" and so she should apply some more liniment after the meeting! To Maria, the girl who is pestering him for her money, Mustafa tells her that since she lent him the money while he was between her legs she might as well wait for him to go back there to pay her back! Interestingly, the critic of the novel is tempted to deduce that the use of humour by Mustafa reveals his character. He is romantic in the way he talks to Martha although with an overtone of seduction. He is perhaps involved in sexual escapades as what he tells Maria seems to have embarrassed her before her colleagues. Waweru's humour does not always have good endings. For instance when he frightens Zsuzsa in bed Kovacs and Erika are not amused. He thence ends up feeling ashamed of himself and wakes up before the others, goes and stays in the kitchen until his friends wake up. Waweru humorously describes his second sexual escapade with Zsuzsa. He compares it to an astronaut's experience in space. That they And, at the end of the intercourse Zsuzsa collapsed panting on his chest, momentarily at a loss of words. The hyperbole is effectively used in this narration to emphasise the adventurous experience the two go through. When Waweru and Abacha go to a discotheque in town one Saturday evening they hope to enjoy themselves to the full. Unfortunately for Abacha this does not seem to be his day because he does not have company. Leaving Abacha at the bar he walks around and finally spots some "lady" sitting alone. For him this is his twelfth hour, he celebrates within himself that he has at last found someone with whom to dance. He vividly describes her - she has shoulder - long hair and rather broad shoulders. He is so excited that he finds himself striding fast toward her "in case somebody else had ideas about 'her'." He gets over to her and uses his seductive language on her to ask her if she cares for a dance with him. He even readies a charming smile to help speed things up when she turns round to look at him. Well, she does not actually turn but whirls. Waweru's smile vanishes instantly for this is a situation he had not prepared for. It is a man with a beard "bushier than Karl Marx's. Paradoxically, the man takes it that he is a gay, a homosexual. He snaps that he is not one and in any case that is not a gays' club. The narration of this 'quiproquo' serves to ensure a liveliness in the reader as he follows Waweru's experiences further. As the disc-jockey plays a slow music number Waweru makes another mistake. This time he makes sure, though, that it is a lady he is approaching. She has breasts as big as size 8 boxing gloves, says Waweru. The description of the lady is humorous though the actual encounter with her is disgusting, lacking in the elementary pathos. She turns to tell him off. Why? Because he is an African. I have appreciated the use of anecdotes by Waweru to emphasise his argument that Hungarians are amongst the least informed earthlings. Consider the encounter with Margit some moments after Kati tells off Waweru on the grounds of his skin colour. Whereupon asking Waweru his name and being told, but, of course, he is still withdrawn thinking of his humiliation by the Hungarian and it takes her some nagging to drive off the name from him, she instantaneously (read immediately) concludes that he is Nigerian. She goes further to tell him that most Nigerian names have the first letter O. That she has read of some Okonkusc in some novel. And, finally the humour. Okonkwo is a lovely name she says, so can I call you so? Waweru interjects by saying that he would not be willing to accept such a name. In an effort to keep him talking, Margit tells "Okonkwo" that his other name is difficult. (He has only told her his name is Waweru). Now, Waweru, the "Nigerian", has to be either a Ibo, Yoruba or Hausa. If not, he must belong to the smaller clans. But if not Nigerian he is Ghanaian. That Margit is surprised that she has met a Kenya makes her think of interviewing him. For Waweru this is interesting because how does one investigate life, as she puts it. The strength of the statement is the ridiculing of Margit although at a *confessionary> level which she does not share with the reader. Gyula Bacsi, the boxing trainer, is concerned about the forthcoming tournament. He hopes to get Waweru fit at least a week before the bout. So he insists that Waweru puts up at his place. One of his concerns is Waweru's weight which he hopes to trim drown by putting him on a crash diet. But this is not to be understood by Waweru especially after a tiring early morning workout that has drained of his energy. Whereas Bacsi and his wife, Marika, help themselves to a basket full of brown bread, scones and other breakfast snacks and a steaming pot of coffee, he is served a thin miserable slice of bread - "so thin I could see the bottom of the plate through it." When Waweru phones Margit her mother who picks up the phone thinks he is Chinese! Even Waweru admits that this revelation by Margit made him laugh. Waweru is a mischievious character. While sleeping outside the gym compound with his boxing colleagues he scoops a handful of snow and shoves it into the open mouth of some lightweight bloke whose snoring is getting into his nerves for he cannot get himself to sleep like the others. The young man is aroused instantaneously by the snow in his mouth, spits and coughs. He looks around to see who has been mischievious enough to do this to him. Meanwhile the "innocent" Waweru has covered his face and is "deep asleep". During the party held to honour Waweru (after recovering from a coma miraculously) everybody in attendance seems livened up. There is Ochola, the Kenyan fellow, and Abacha, the Nigerian student, who are in a crossfire. The argument by Ochola is that Abacha does not have an instrument similar to a Luo nyatiti! W1A005K Humour is the quality of being amusing or comic by introduction of sarcasm or irony in a style that can make the reader laugh or smile whilst reading the book *incase> of writen><+_written> literature. Anybody reading Omondi Mak Oloo's book will agree with me that the plot is wholly supported by strong pillars of humour. Humour rages from the first to the very concluding page. To prove this we see the first page where the child is very inquisitive to why Waweru was black, to why his parents were also black, and lastly where he comes from. This was taking place in the eyes of Waweru and anybody could feel how uneasy Waweru felt especially when he smiled at the small child, and she shrank away. He was very annoyed when he alighted that he even could not tell whether to be angry with Hungarian weather or the racists. This confusion brings the humour to the reader. On page 7, Waweru wakes up in the morning at 9. 30 am. He tries to phone. He greets the person on the phone as Good morning but in answer he retorts, 'good day you mean' simply because the Hungarian morning ends at 8 am. Waweru threatens Abacha against his usage of a large voice in the mouthpiece. Abacha tells Waweru about a lady who has been looking for him. On Abacha`s mention of her name, Waweru cautions him of making public the whole issue. The humour lies in the answer, Abacha tells him that there's no single soul within hundred metres unless he was afraid of the pissing puppy. A puppy cannot interpret human language so Abacha uses this to completely shut down Wawerus argument. Its a great humour on page 11 when Waweru watches himself through a mirror and considered his own image with qualities of an independent person. "I told the guy in the mirror and winked. "Its humour when he tells us the image agreed with him because it had winked back when he did same. Waweru used words that involve humour on page 12. He suggests that the Hungarian loaves were very hard that he had requested Erika to purchase an electric saw. That brings to our knowledge the fact that the loaves were indeed hard, but exergerates><+_exaggerates> the fact of buying a saw. He goes further to tell us of the factory tomatoes as Abacha calls them. He says that the cheese smelt good good once he got used to the stink. Surely who will dare like anything that stinks. Waweru on page 13 comes back into the telephone play. There was a great misconception on the telephone when Waweru thought he was talking to Jozsi but instead he was talking to a different person. When the man could not comprehend the name Waweru, he was abused by Waweru as 'Mother fucker'. This to exchange of pillar words betweeen Jozsi and the person who had received the phone. When the reader discovers that Waweru was talking to a different person, he will be interested to know what happens and really what follows will amuse the reader. Waweru on page 15 expecting to meet a lady's voice over the phone meets a mans><+_man's> voice. He however told Gyula Bacsi unconcionsly><+_unconsciously> that he thought she was his girlfriend. Bacsi had advised Waweru to leave ladies for a while for he would loose stamina and his fighting power deteroriates. . . " To the worse extend now Bacsi tells him to wait until he has informed the boys about the matter. In Wawerus mind on page 17 he admits Csaba is a terror in the ring. He suggests that if his *upperant> connected then it was goodnight for whoever stopped it. He goes further to say that he was scared stiff to Csaba but he wouldn't admit it to a soul even if it meant hanging. He changes and says aloud that he cannot be afraid of Csaba. This shows that Waweru in true essence is very much afraid of Csaba than anything else. But we hereby find that he cannot admit it to any soul not even his own soul. On pages 25 in a duel with Csaba Waweru tells us that he looked around to see if anybody had noticed his superpunch. But to his disappointment everybody was busy with their own things. Even the trainer had his back on them. This was very disappointing to Waweru and its in this disappointment that we find humour lying. Just before the fight with the Arabs, Waweru tells us about one scare. A situation when he had gone to the toilets and he was told by one of the Hungarians that Erika was being disturbed. Waweru informs us that once the Hungarians are drunk they become great friends. They can't notice even if you trod on their food, your are no longer a stinking nigger. He was told by a Hungarian that he should have been a Cuban. The Hungarian was convinced beyond any doubt that Waweru was a Cuban and he was busy asking for Havana cigars. He believed that Waweru should have been a close relative to Castro of Cuba. Waweru knew he must have been very drunk for he himself started thinking that he was a relative of Castro. He believed that Castro was his uncle. Zsuzsa was looking for Kovaks and Waweru was looking for Erika. Zsuzsa and Waweru met and were asking from each other their appropriate counterparts. What amuses me in the decision made by Waweru that since Erika and Kovaks were not around, they could be in the same place keeping an eye on each other. For them also they should keep an eye on each other. Zsuzsa being a lustful lover says that that was what she was even going to suggest. This is on page 72. Two pages later Waweru is training Zsuzsa how to dance to a reggae music. The funny thing is that she never knew how to dance the reggae tunes and many times she lost steps. Humorous thing about it is that for the second reggae number, she missed a step and it was against racism. It went thus;. She missed the step for she could not get it . Indeed she was a master of racism. On page 83 is the scene where Kovaks, Zsuzsa, Erika and Waweru slept together. Waweru woke up and looked at the others who were sleeping. Others were in deep sleep except for Zsuzsa who stirred. She was a half asleep and stared at Waweru. Waweru scared her by closing the eyes and opening the mouth. To this extend she screamed. I laugh realising that Waweru is an adult and what he did surely I could not expect such from him. The USA meeting from page 86 starts with a lot of noise in the room. The first sense of humour is when Mustafa and others who had climbed on the table fall down when the table could no longer withhold the weight. There was a great hush in the room as Mustafa is very hurt. When he goes back to stage the students listen to him for a while. Mustafa was even afraid when he was given another table to stand on. In the same scene many students denied having any knowledge of who Amina was. This was just a pretence. The chairman told Ogandipe (page 91). This was very obscene and many shall laugh since the chairman implies that he would return the money only when she behaves well and when he will be between her legs. On page 101 at the swimming pool Waweru wanted to go swimming with a strange lady who was a blonde. Waweru winked after he saw she was very beautiful. He was with the intention of taking her with him to swimming without arousing the attention of Zsuzsa and Erika. Suddenly as he was in the heart of meditation, Erika approached him suddenly and asks "Nice girl hmm?" Waweru had nothing to answer but cheated her by denying any knowledge of the lady. Page 109 After Zsuzsa and Waweru were caught fornicating, Waweru pulled the door with assumption that Zsuzsa had had enough time to dress up herself. This was a great miscalculation, the towel was still spread on the floor and she had not dressed up. The next funny thing was that by the scene, Erika was present. They met the eyes and it was very disappointing. On page 115, Abacha and Waweru were two contrasting characters. Abacha solely believed that Erika threw out Waweru because Waweru was a black. Humour part of it is that Abacha suggests that a black girl could have done it respectively. I also like Waweru wonder how a girl could leave you respectfully when she has found you fornicating with her friend. On page 133 I find it humerous><+_humorous> when Illonka and Zsuzsa claims that they wanted to rape Waweru because Waweru , they believed never finished love. I laugh when I find Waweru not even scared and he goes on to say that he has got no hurry going to the hostels. Just before the raping on page 138 Illonka cautions Zsuzsa that she should not rape Waweru till she gets back. On page 145 Waweru stands and goes to dance with another person. He talked and whispered to her ear. He placed on a charming smile. The humour about is that Waweru did not expect what he found out. That was a man like he and not a girl! *infact> with *beards>. He was abused by the man who thought Waweru was a gay. Waweru meets Margit on page 165. When they had gone to sleep, she told Waweru to leave her so that she may sleep for she was very tired. Waweru, in mind asked himself if he was a Saint Joseph or anything next to that. On page 169 Waweru claims that his safety valve could not contain the pressure any longer, he had played enough for Saint Joseph. Waweru discovers that the girl was a virgin and he says that, that was the last thing he was expecting from her. The last laughable part is when the girl asserts; On page 180 Waweru stays with Bacsi the trainer. Waweru was given very little food and this made him protest but he had nothing to do but to eat the food. Bacsi tells him that he should regain from eating any meal outside his house. In Wawerus mind, he knew very well that he could go to the college canteen and buy meals. As if Bacsi was reading his mind, he informs Waweru that he had taken all his money when Waweru had gone to bathe. On page 194 Waweru applies jelly to one of the clubmates. The clubmate asks Waweru if there were gays in Kenya. Waweru not knowing the motive behind the asking answers that "queers are everywhere". Clubmate is very inquisitive and wanted to know Waweru`s stand or position in the issue. This makes Waweru to discover his motive and quickly informs him that he is not interested. Humour lies in the replies, the man told Waweru; As if not enough, Waweru gives a humour; On page 83 Waweru annoys Erika very much when Zsuzsa was scared and was crying. She asks Waweru if he had tried to screw her. He in reply wished that he had screwed her. Therefor humour in the text is heavily based on racialism><+_racism>. This is as seen Waweru's seat could not be occupied and when the young child inquisitively wanted to know the reason to why Waweru was black and ugly. Humour is based on adoption of a language among the youth. Waweru has adopted an indecent language. At the meeting, the chairman retorts at one of the girl student who had claimed her money from him, using a very indecent language. There is humour in flashback. Its><+_It's> applied in the scene that Waweru gives us a humour about when he was young and he had licked sugar. He denied but the mirror revealed it all. It was disappointing for him. W1A006K Humour can be defined as an amusement aspect, which in most cases, is used in artistic work such as novels. It's a style which can have an ironic twist or satirise an issue or depict an idea in a way that cannot cause great commotion. Humour adds flavour to a work of an art therefore, making readers to laugh and initiates them to concentrate (be eager) more on the work. The aspect of humour as to such, has been and is being used in various works for amusement for instance, it's used in our local press: 'The Daily Nation' in the whispers column and which *infact> influences readers' attention. In Omondi Mak'Oloo's novel Times Beyond, the idea of humour has been used for several purposes for example, it has been applied to add 'salt' and of course to draw the readers' attention. The author depicts all these through the I narrator-Waweru, who is very understandable more especially to the racist environment he's in and handles all the matters which come across his life in a light manner. Several instances have been used to show humour at work. The first instance is seen in the beginning of the book whereby, we find a dialogue between a mother and her little daughter; which amuses us a lot. The child asks her mother what kind of uncle is Waweru. The mother answers that he's '...a nigger uncle' and the child goes a head to ask as to why he's black while the mother answers that he comes from Africa. The child's exclamatory remark "Pfui! He's so ugly." plus her mother's answers "Because he comes from Africa", "Because his parents are black" and "Because they sunbathe too much" asserts more amusement to the context or conversation. Not only that this humorous incident makes us laugh, but also introduces us to the idea of racism that is shown by the author. This context depicts the racial aspect in this society where the Whites who are the majority, shows their hostility against Waweru and other blacks. Moreover, the mother in the conversation portrays how little the Hungarians know about the outside world; which appears to be a phenomenon for instance Africa is seen by her to be very far away: hence blacks come only from there. The way she suggests that Waweru is black due to much sunbathing is vague and beside being humourous><+_humorous>, it shows how ignorant she is. The second incident, which despites><+_depicts> humour, is when the I narrator is in Erika's room and admires himself in a mirror; as he was preparing to leave for classes. This episode is used by the author in describing Waweru. He gives Waweru a chance to depict his feelings about himself to the audience. He therefore, describes (the humourous><+_humorous> aspect) himself as if it's somebody else and shows how proud he is about his skin colour and image; despite the fact that he is black and subjected to racial discrimination. This is quite interesting to us as readers and ironical on the other hand on the side of the Hungarians. Earlier on, we encounter another instance which is full of humour. In this context, Waweru is listening to the radio and happens to catch the news about the cold war between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. The way he suggests is full of amusement 'When would the fools get down to fighting and be over with it instead of terrorising the world with suspense?... Neither has said okey, what we are doing is utter insanity and detrimental to the whole of mankind. From now on, nuclear power will be used for peaceful purposes only, and some of the billion of dollars and roubles we spend daily in arming ourselves to the teeth will go to feed those undernourished Indians and Niggers of the third world. If we feel that the monkeys don't deserve too much charety<+_charity>, the we can use the money to better the living standard of our own folks at home', This passage is humorous beside depicting a serious issue. The use of the word 'nigger'- recalling the conversation between the mother and her daughter, shows that Waweru is not a fool and understands the whole issue of racism which is practised by the white. Due to this, he realises that they cannot easily help people of the third world 'Indians and Niggers' and ironically he gives them the option of using the money to better the lifes><+_lives> of their folks instead of using it on arming themselves. Moreover, the conversation on telephone between Waweru and Jozsi's father is humorous. When Waweru rang to his friend Joszi for help in class work, he thought that he was the one who was talking. Waweru used obscene language which offended Jozsi's father hence initiating a quarrel between a father and his son. The passage makes us laugh more especially when Jozsi asks Waweru whether they have telephones in Africa! Besides showing a bit of racism and humiliation, it also shows variation of language use in that a language used precisely by the youths can offend and cannot be accomodated><+_accommodated> by the older people. In addition, the telephone conversation between Waweru and Gyula Bacsi after the ordeal with Jozsi spells out humour. This time, Waweru mistook Bacsi his boxing coach for his girlfriend Erika. "It's gorgeous!" I was grinning from ear to ear. 'Vaveru?' It was a man's voice. My heart tumbled to my boots'. The humour in this case is seen in Waweru who eagerly waited for the soothing voice of Erika but in contrast; he's shocked with Gyula Bacsi's voice. Furthermore, the punchline of this humour is seen when Bacsi answers back 'Exactly!' ejaculated Gyula Bacsi. 'Exactly', he repeated. This passage makes the reader to understand Waweru as regards to the theme of love whereby, he loves his Erika much. It also introduces us to the boxing life of Waweru. And in this case, the coach is upset and asserts on the cause of Waweru's deteriorating standards in boxing, which is a reality. The truth hurts Waweru who tries to defend himself "...Can't we talk about this later?..." The two parties oppose each other and so increase the humour effect. The conversation between Waweru and Abacha is humorous and takes an ironic twist. This is seen in page seventy whereby, they talk about the USA meeting meant to raise money for Amina; a Sudanese girl who had an abortion. 'That small Sudanese girl' 'An abortion?...say isn't it Amina who had a Hungarian boyfriend?" Such quotations plus the issue of Waweru knowing what Abacha was thinking about (as he was also thinking the same) as they kept quiet is quite interesting. Furthermore, the I narrator adds that they had an unwritten rule which prohibited African girls from being befriended by white boys (meaning they were to move with blackboys only); but never restricted the boys is humorous: "There was an unwritten rule among us that the boys could move with white girls if they wished, while the girls should only take black boys for boyfriends". This actually shows an opposite case in that not only the white, but Africans also practised racial segregation. The aspect of 'relief supplies' to be imported from Africa due to shortage of black girls adds more amusement into this context. Beside that, it also shows the male chauvinism and dominance over their female counterparts who are seen as sex objects if not 'goods for transportation'. At the USA meeting, the aspect of one student who claims to be responsible for ten abortions plus; the confrontation between Mustafa who's the Chairman and Ogundipe who claims to have lend him 500 Forint, (which he says was given when he was between her legs) is humorous. At this meeting, the USA student members met to raise some money for Amina who had an abortion termed as a 'successful abortion'. It's at this time that one student said " This is contrary to what we know that the act of commiting><+_committing> an abortion is illegal hence depicts to us how less serious this is taken and of course its legalization in Hungary. Mustafa's case also shows us immorality in this society especially between the lifes><+_lives> of students. Though humorous this passage is, the author uses it to depict such serious issues in human life in a light way. During the boxing competition, Waweru was ordered by his coach Gyula Bacsi to apply liniment on his fellow light welter boxer. 'Give him the works. Right from the neck to the thighs...' The boxer turned and faced down while Waweru started applying the liniment. Surprisingly enough, this boxer was a gay! He tried to convert Waweru into one as he was 'working' on him. He asserts being a homosexualists><+_homosexual> by saying It's at this incident that Waweru hit the man hard, yelled abuses at him 'Dirty little pig!" while he spat on his face and left him cowering by the lockers. This incident is humorous and shows the social link (immorality) in the society. Similar to the above incident is seen when Waweru and Abacha, are in the bar (pg 145), while they searched for ladies to have a dance with. The I narrator unfortunately landed on a man thinking that he was a lady. this one didn't turn; she whirled...I had made a mistake. It was a he not a she. He had a beard bushier than Karl Marx's...'I'm not a gay, he snapped. 'This is not a gay club in any case" This passage points out the idea of mistaken identity plus how homosexuality as an immoral practise is familiarised among this people '...a gay club...' The climax of this humour is shown by Abacha as he makes fun on Waweru about this incident, choking on his drink and rushing to the loos while he asserted ,". After Waweru's recovery, we encounter his mother and his sister, having arrived at Hungary to have an eye on him. His mother used to be strict and it's through this; that Waweru narrates his past life history as a child hence extends to tell us more about his Murang'a home. The humorous part of this instance is when Waweru tells us how he used to help himself to a spoonful of sugar and how his mother caught him red handed. This instance is used by the author as a chance for Waweru to tell us bit of his life history which could have been otherwise inevitable. It in addition, acts contrary to the setting of the novel that is, between his home and Hungary. While he was on his way to deliver Bela Bacsis money after the day's business, Waweru encountered a prostitute. The woman was carrying out some business and Waweru happened to buy a Swiss watch from her using Bacsis money without permission. The humour part of it is depicted when the woman saw the cashbox full of money and had much zeal for the money "Is that your money?" She held the door and insisted to stay while she was reluctant to leave the scene. She further threw an hand around Waweru's shoulder 'reeking of stale sweat foul breath' trying to win his mind. More amusement is realized when Waweru picked a switchblade which he never thought of using against a prostitute, to scare her away. The woman screamed, she was pushed out onto the pavement and took off, while on the other hand, Waweru reversed the car and also took off! Moreover, this humour ended with Waweru handing the cashbox with full of guilty conscious; hoping to replace the money he used but, once he was out of the house he changed his mind and never (ironically) felt so bad about the money. This passage depicts the idea of prostitution done at the *pritex> that one is carrying on trade, hence shows the aspect of infidelity at work. Generally, the aspect of humour as used by the author; has contributed a lot to the effectiveness of the work beyond amusement and readers' attraction. Being a feature of style, it has assisted in rendering a success to the work despite the shortcomings in Makoloo's novel; bearing though, in mind that 'style is the man'. W1A007K "Civilization is when things work the way we expect them to." The word civilization is derived from a Latin word, civis which represent an actual social condition of the citizens. It was contrasted with barbarism, another social condition, which was originally a description of the life of a foreign group. E.B. Tylor, a sociologist used the term "civilization" and "culture" as virtually synonymous. He defined them as, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." To him, it is in this sense that all human societies have a "culture" and a "civilization". Other academicians like Alfred Weber and R.M. Macluer, have reserved the Concept of culture for the area of values and meanings while using civilization for the area of material organization. Weber regarded civilization as the product of science and technology and as universal and accumulative in that it reveals to nature rather than to man. Macluer, made a broadly similar distinction; he related culture to ends and civilization to means and viewed the technological order of civilization as determined with the cultural order of means and values. Another social scientist, V. Gordon Childe defined civilization as being the city. He coined the term, "urban revolution" to characterise the achievement of civilization. To him, terms "civilization" and "urban revolution" are equalent><+_equivalent>. He stated that the urban revolution was the culmination of a process of progressive change in economic structure and social organization; the city was the "resultant and symbol" of this revolution. He cited ancient Mesopotamia as having had a parallel and direct link between development of cities and civilization. Among the qualities of civilization according to Childe include a stratified social structure, a highly differentiated occupational hierarchy, a well defined political structure, and integration as being fostered through a state ideology which reaffirm the basic unity of the society. He contented that "city" and "civilization" have all these characteristics and hence are the same and one. There are other scholars, among them, Julian H. Stewart who have employed an "ecological perspective" in their approach to analysis and determination of the concept of civilization. This approach directs attention to how the members of a given society are related to their environment - particularly to how they exploit it and to the network of social relations involved - in an effort to determine in what ways these relations illumine other aspects of their social system. Anthropologists use the concept of civilization in opposition to the notions of primitive and folk cultures. As a taxonomical category it applies to cultural types characterised by organic heterogeneity and correlatively complex society structures. Civilized societies are typically stratified and segmented. In evolutionary terms, the achievement of civilization represents a definitive stage in the development of society and culture; as such, it contrasts with savagery and barbarism, the levels of integration that preceded civilization in the course of mankind's progress. In that regard, the achievement of civilization presupposes the attainment of a considerable degree of efficiency in food production; the economic foundations of civilization are everywhere based firmly on agricultural productivity which is facilitated by means of land reclamation, soil conservation, hydraulic control, etc. Also civilization entails technological advancement - not only skills and crafts, but also development of managerial skills. According to Robert Redfield, a reputable sociologist, civilization is a revolutionary change in the relative importance in society of the moral order and the technical order. He viewed the criteria that serve to differentiate civilization from the stage of barbarism as being the social, moral, and intellectual. To him, civilization is the transformation of the folk community into civilized society. The moral order in a civilized society is institutionalized in contrast with the traditional ethnical systems of the homogenous local communities. He used the concepts of, "the great tradition" and "little tradition" to mark a sharp distinction between folk culture and civilized culture. He called the "great tradition" a civilized or high culture. It is a cultural system shaped by reflective ideas, speculative thought, and it is consciously cultivated, systematized, and transmitted. The "little tradition" on the other hand is constituted by the Love, beliefs, folk wisdom, and artistic expressions of the common people - It is a "low" or "lay" culture. Its><+_It's> molded><+_moulded> by customs and its><+_it's> refractory to innovation. Another scholar, Friedrich Engels sharpened the concept of civilization as a social phenomena by refining the general scheme of social evolution by defining the transition from one stage to the next with reference to social and economic conditions. In economic relations, there is control of the means of production including human labour by ruling classes which assume the centralization and redistribution of surpluses, and the allocation of a labour force for public works, networks of exchange controlled by a professional merchant class or by the state, that supersede the direct exchange of goods and services. In the political structure, there must be a centralized executive and administrative functions. The state is integrated on the bases of social class and residence - instead of tribal organization, based on descent and kinship. He also viewed the rise of civilization as being accompanied by radical transformations of the ethnical systems. As relations among men change, so do man's views of the universe. The moral order becomes insitutionalized: A hierarchical class of priests, state-managed cults, and a sociomorphic conception of the supernatural world. Conversely, man becomes a creature of the gods, and society is understood as a manifestation of the cosmic harmony, thus, the new social order comes to be viewed as the product of divine sanction. Ethical life acquires new dimensions with the rise of moral orders more inclusive than the traditional moral order of the local communities or tribal groups. The revolutionary changes in the structure of society stimulate moral creativeness. Engels also stated that in the means of intellect, civilization is marked by the development of speculative thought, the expansion of time consciousness, the elaboration of exact and predictive sciences, the adoption of conventional symbols for recording and transmitting information, and the fixing of standards of time and space, and eventually also of weight. Finally, Friedrich took the expansion in aesthetic consciousness as a product of the attainment of civilization. To him, a high art (the art of the high or civilized culture) characterized by conceptualized and sophisticated styles becomes differentiated, superseding the old forms of communal art and relegating them to a subordinate level. The new styles are the produce of the creative activities of specially trained, professional - minded artists - craftsmen who labour to meet the demands of an elite of art patrons imbued with the new spirit. There are other intellectuals who have tried to define the concept of civilization by demonstration and illustration. Among them is Ferdinand Tonnies who made a comparative distinction between a civilized community which he called Gesellschaft and uncivilized one which he called Gemeinschaft. The Gesellschaft is characterized by reason, everybody is by himself and isolated, there is growth of city life, growth of state and of national life. There is also an elaborate trade system and relationships are constructual and functional. On the other hand, the Gemeinschaft which he also called a "community of feeling" has associative unity of ideas and emotions that results from likeness and from shared life-experience. The relations are based on kinship, neighbourhood, collective proprietorship and it has a domestic economy. Tonnies thesis is that a period of Gesellschaft follows a period of Gemeinschaft. Also, Emile Durkheim illustrated the meaning of the concept of civilization by using the term social solidarity as the index. He distinguished a civilized society from a primitive one by referring them as being governed or sustained by organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity respectively. In mechanical solidarity, social cohesion is based on likeness, collective conscience and homogeneity. In contrast, the organic solidarity is characterised by social solidarity based on the interdependence of specialized parts. Durkheim concluded that organic solidarity progresses as mechanical solidarity regresses. To him, the evolution of society can therefore be seen in terms of the passage from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity, with "mechanical" or "organic" referring to the dominant type of solidarity relationship at each evolutionary stage. He emphasized on division of labour as the source of solidarity in modern society. Again, Robert Redfield used his theory of "the Folk-Urban Continuum" in relation to a civilized and uncivilized people or culture. He characterised Folf Society as being small, isolated, nonliterate, homogeneous, having a strong sense of group solidarity, behaviour being traditional and sacred orientation of their lives. The people within a folk society are uncritical, have no reflection to intellectual ends and have a kinship-based relationship. Their economy is one of status rather than of the market. The urban society on the other side is characterised by the antithesis of attributes of the folk society. From all the above definitions and explanations of the concept of civililzation, its clear and correct to firmly accept the assertion that, "civilization is when things work the way we expect them to". However, I would like to refute the conception of V. Gordon Childe of civilization being a city. Civilization is attained by man's endeavour to improve the quality of his life. I hence do not see any relation between civilization and urbanization because I tend to think civilization being a mark of a certain stage or state of man's social and cultural circumstances can be anywhere within the social and cultural parameters. Civilzation can in way be equated with the concept of development if development takes into account not only economic development, but also take into consideration the social and cultural dimension of progress. Among indicators of sustainable development which may be seen as civilization include foot security which is ensured through the sustainable use of physical resources and environment, basic economic security which guarantees the fullness employment of each individual's talents and skills through both the formal sector and the household mobilization system, national institutional security by establishment and sustainable operation of national systems responsible for the mobilization of geographical and geo-economic support for its priority programme for long-term national development, including a dynamic sense of national peace; security; and cohesion, the development of a national vibrant knowledge industry consisting of University institutions, a scientific research and technological development system, the agro-business and industry domain, the publishing industry and entrepreneurial institutions, and designed to underpin the inputs into and extend the outputs, etc. By civilization, man ensures his survival and a life worth of him. Human beings must as a matter of their interest and welfare forge a synthesis of ideas, values and practices which would together constitute some notion of an ordered universe, and could specify for man a set of purposes in relation to that synthesis. As the word and our knowledge of it change, this synthesis must change too, so as to make it adequate to changing and changed circumstances. I would also like to take the idea of cultural evolution to be parallel or to some extent to be the same as the process of civilization. Social and cultural evolution have been able to steer the progress of human-kind from its almost "animal-like" primitive conditions to the sophisticated forms of its present civilization. Man has been able to progress not only by adapting to the natural environment but also by adapting this environment to his needs. He has managed to create an artificial world - world of artefacts with the advancement of civilization. This issue of cultural evolution and process of civilization is clearly stated by Charles Darwin in his theory of evolution in his book entitled, "The origin of species", whereby he stated that, Within the context of cultural evolution or the process of civilization this simply means that old or outdated systems comprised of material and non-material culture must give way to new systems which are more complex and sophisticated than the previous one to cope up with the prevailing social situation. W1A008K "CIVILIZATION IS WHEN THINGS WORK THE WAY WE EXPECT THEM TO". The term civilization derives from a social condition 'civis' (in Latin) meaning citizen. Civilization is archeologicaly><+_archeologically> and historicaly><+_historically> defined as a culture which is maintained by a large population, over a long time, which includes an establishment of political organizations centred on cities, palaces and temples, the use if uniting and the development of specialized occupations.1 Webster defines civilization as an ideal state of human culture characterized by complete absence of barbarism and non-rational behaviour, optimum utilization of physical, cultural RRRcultural, spiritual and human resources and perfect adjustment of the individual within the social framework. As the progressive development of arts, sciences, UUUstatecraft and human aspirations and spirituality. It is a particular stage of cultural development at which writing and the keeping of written records is attained. A stage marked by Urbanization, advanced technology/techniques in agriculture and industry, expanded population and complex social organization which are not independent of technology. It is the whole of the advances of human culture and aspirations beyond the purely animal level. This definitions carry with them other concepts that need clarification for a better understanding and reflection of what civilization is. Non-rationality would simply imply the lack of reasoning in the process of Judgement. In relation to civilization, it would then mean that civilization is not judgement minus reasoning. It is not a mere effect of emotions and/or intuition. I will take the term development to imply a process of natural growth, differentiation or gradual/successive change from a less perfect stage to a more perfected one. This would mean that the human being (who is my greatest concern on this issue of civilization) advances from a simpler state of existence to a more complex state in relation to himself and to others in structure, function and motive. *Infact>, all that would be examined under civilization must show such gradual progression. On many occasions, civilization is contrasted with barbarism which I take to imply/refer to the social condition of offending the already established regard for correctness, or/and purity. A condition of deviance. When one contrasts civilization with barbarism he/she actually implies that civilization is the adherence to some established social values. In their genesis about the emergence of the state, early philosophers may have had such a contrast in mind. What I am trying to propose is that at the time of their argumentation, the society they were living in had already established some values which must have influenced their intellect one way or the other. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes assume that man at first lived in a state of nature/anarchy where society, government and organized coexcion><+_coercion> of individual by the group existed. Men therefore made a covenant by which they abandoned their 'state of nature' to form a society in which they now live. They made a social contract which is assumed to have had men surrender their natural rights or liberties in order to enjoy the order and safety of the organized society. This can lead one to safely assert that civilization is the attainment of order and safety as needed by the individuals. Assuming that every individual was on his own (which is not perfectly true as the family component must have existed somehow), each individual must have had some established values. When such values are threatened men must have then 'decided' to surrender their liberties for the security of other greater values, say life. What I am calling decision here could be what Rousseau meant by asserting that it was the general will that necessited><+_necessitated> the establishment of reciprocal rights, duties, privileges and responsibilities which form the basis of the state. The state at this time is an organization and as per the definition, civilization. The concept culture derives from a Latin metaphorical term 'cultura', derived from the act of cultivating the soil.2 According to Webster, culture means that total pattern of human behaviour and its products embodied in thought, speech, action and artefacts and dependent upon man's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations through the use of tools, language, and systems of abstract thought. It is the body of customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits constituting a distinct complex tradition of a racial, religious or a social group. Culture could be said to be a general habit of the mind as related to human perfection, a general state of intellectual and moral development in a society as a whole, a body of the arts and intellectual work and as the whole way of life, material, intellectual, and spiritual of a society. From this definitions of culture, on can assert that the process of civilization traces back to the time of development of knowledge, opinion and belief. Infact civilization traces back to thought as the very first step from non-rationality. The development of language, as a communication medium, establishment of symbols, gestures, art, graphics and writing, - the basis of communication as understood today- forms the basis of civilization. The 'state of nature ' is associated with hunting and gathering, and more *pronouncingly> the non-existed of law and order, life was short, nasty and brutal in this kind of state. However comparable man was to the other animals, he could exercise some kind of extra-rationality by not only hunting and gathering but by also fishing and using floating tools for instance, logs, and some *porking> sticks. This could be an indication or a trace of civilization at the stage of the 'stage of nature'. However, the most crucial stage is that of 'deciding' to bring up the social contract in mention by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. For such an act to be effected, rationality must have come to play. There must have been a thought, a medium of communication that was understood by a fairly large group to necessitate deliberations and *infact>, adoption of what was agreed upon. This act(s) of communicating, deliberating and adopting of set objectives is in itself an organizational process and in essence, the making of what the participants wanted, hence civilization. It was not until the new stone age that domestication of plants and animals was practised. This marked the beginning of the modern conceptualization of civilization. It was the beginning of settlements which were at first semi-permanent but became permanent gradually. When archeologists><+_archaeologists> define civilization as including specialized occupation, this domestication must be a major contributor because of the existent practise of farming and ranching and *nomadism>. Settled communities especially in Mesopotamia and Egypt among others, are said to have experiences climatic changes at around 4000 BC which is thought to have rendered fertile lands barren.3 This could have called for adoption and because of the presence of water masses, rivers for instance, the rise of irrigation systems was inevitable. The use of such systems must have needed co-operation and indeed, co-ordination. This could explain the rise of organisations and at this stage, some direction from a centre. Being a fact that many settlements were in river valleys, with an exception of those that did not, the settlers had to cope with the flood situation from time to time. This too, may have necessitated co-operation and *infact> may have precipitated organizations. This brings another approach to the study of civilization. The centre was to give instructions and the necessity, needed to arbitrate and enforce resolutions. This could also explain the rise of political structures such as councils (legislatures) to debate and pass resolutions, an executive (bureaucracy) to enforce the resolutions and a court (judicial system) to try those that refused to compel. But there was the other need of defence and security so as to check deviance from within and from without the community. This could have resulted in police and the soldiery. For effective administration, records had to be invented and assuming that writing was already in place, professionals had to emerge to deal with specific aspects of the society. For instance, professional scribes, lawyers, clerks and other occupations resulted. Career administrators came in as administrative strategies had to be laid down and followed to achieve a defined goal. The monitoring of such occurances><+_occurrences> like floods may be responsible for the emergence of calenders. Calenders were, of course, worked out by monitoring of the star patterns at a given time/season, remonitoring and predicting. This monitoring of stars gave the way for the development of astronomy and indeed, astrology. Population increase and a changing environment led to more adoption. This saw the rise of the agrarian revolution which was targeted towards food sufficiency and supply. As a result of this, industrial revolution was to follow. The increase in production of raw materilas><+_materials> meant the establishment of better refining gadgets. This was the industrial revolution which was characterized by invention of machines and the perfection of the existing ones. Iron was brought into intense use. Occupations, Medicine for instance, was to develop and have its many branches of dentistry, say human, animal and plant medicines as there is today. Increased food production did not lead to total sufficiency, insufficiency continued to exist and would later develop to trade. This was to be within the community/village and between different villages. I take the village at this stage to mean a settlement or a group of people who are settled in a given area. This settlements would be organized in say, a kinship system of organization which would later develop to sophisticated political organizations and territories, but primarily first as persons of a common ancestry say for instance, the bantu><+_Bantu>, nilotes><+_Nilotes> and cushites><+_Cushites> and others. Such organizations at the very first time operated on basis of trust. As an effect of trade, competition arose. It would target the domination of trade routes and domination of supplies of certain commodities. Backed by the already established institutions of the soldiery, conquest and state domination did result. The term state here is used to imply a single settlement or several settlements that have been made a single entity through conquest and domination. This could explain the existing behaviour of state. I am trying to draw attention to the culture of conquest, say colonialism, direct/indirectly by the modern state as an aspect of civilization. The behaviour of the modern state of wanting her existence to be felt and recognized which could include the extension of territory, exploitation of others and indeed total control, political and economic, of another. Examples could include the invasion of Grenada by the U.S.A in the late 1980's, and that of Iraq over Kuwait. I am making the assumption that domination has developed into a culture. Once conquered, the losers have their independence curtailed and their wealth claimed by the victors. The Akkadian empire, one of the earliest empires, is said to have developed by such means of conquest and so did many others.4 Increase of trade as a result of insufficiency led to the emergence of merchants. This put together with dominance, imperialism and as cause-effects, capitalism and colonialism developed. This may somehow qualify civilization when defined as culture and inevitably associated with dominance, to imply barbarism. I am saying this because there resulted deviance of some set values and *infact> somehow went against the social contract said before as liberties where to be secured at an equal level. Imperialism at first is brought up as a check/struggle of dominance between establishments. The posed threat there could be real or imagined. For instance the expansion of the Assyrian empire which was aimed to counter Aramaean UUUintansrous.5 I want to make an emphasis that when viewing civilzation as a maintained culture, one needs not forget that the cultural values of a given people are very much influenced by the peoples environment. The cultural value I have in mind would include foods, clothing, belief and other customs. For instance, the intensity of the sun rays and the period of winter are pointed by Mazrui to have had an effect on the emergence of certain things in Europe that were at that time not emerging in Africa.6 W1A009K Topic: Although circumcision is a significant rite of passage, female circumcision should be eradicated in a modern society Although circumcision is a significant rite of passage, female circumcision should be eradicated in modern society. Circumcision is a practice of initiating young members of a society into adulthood. In the African context, it is a highly religious affair in which everyone in the community must participate. In almost all societies, it involves cutting or making a mark on the bodies of initiates which is both permanent and very significant. In a secular context, female circumcision involves cutting off the clitoris from a woman's sex organ as a mark of transition from childhood to adulthood. In a deep context, female circumcision, or clitoridectomy not only involves bridging this gap from childhood to adulthood but also has various other meanings , inclusive of being a gateway to marriage. Female circumcision has , in modern society ,come under a lot of controversy. This is in the light of its being a health hazard, an outdated practice as well as a violation of human right among others. Many people have campaigned against it with vehemence and choke so that some African countries have even banned the practice. However, despite this opposition and occasional censure, the practice has thrived unhindered, going underground in situations where it has been repressed. This paper intends to show the *positiveness> of female circumcision, so much cherished by those who practice it, against it's dangers and risks ,which, as will be seen, have brought into the limelight by modernization. It would also be necessary to asses this issue from an African point of view, and speciaficlly><+_specifically> a Kenyan one, since these two situation are relevant to us today. Circumcision , in general, involved a bond being made between the living and the dead. Mbiti (1992: 99) say that through the shadding><+_shedding> of blood, one made a communion with his or her community as well as his or her departed ancestors. Whether such a purpose for circumcision is relevant to a modern society is debatable. This is because forces of religion, education and modernization have wiped a way beliefs in the living dead and other cherished ideas in traditional world. Secondly, one was recognized as an adult after getting circumcised. Mbiti says that any person who did not undergo this practice, whatever his her age, was still considered a child (ibid). However, in modern terms ,one's recognition as an adult may emanate from mental or physical growth and stature, getting married and other social or even spiritual developments. These may be taken as a criterion to adult status. Thirdly, initiation was a gateway to marriage. Mbiti (op.cit), says that one would not be viable for marriage, at whatever age, if he or she had not undergone this practice. It was virtually a sole and very important prerequisite to marriage. During the healing period, the initiates were adviced><+_advised> by elder members of the society on the secrets and mysteries of marriage life. However, modern society has no such prerequisite for marriage. Love between those involved is cherished more than the question of what culture one identifies him or herself with. For marriage secrets, one may wonder which they are while every nitty gritty detail about marriage life is there for all who are literate enough to read in magazines, newpapers><+_newspapers>, novels and other reading material. Fourthly the scar left on the sex organ of the individual identified him or her with the community from which he or she came. But this may sound vague in a modern situation in that the scar is not overt for everyone to see, secondly, the need to identify oneself with only one's ethnic community will breed such issues as ethnocentricity , tribalistic chauvinism and many others, all evils in today's society. Circumcision was also seen as a new birth. Both male and female were reborn in the tribe, this being marked by intensive feasting and appraisal by the whole community. Mbiti (1960:102) says that in some communities, the youth would acquire new names and drop old ones. Clothes worn during childhood would be set on fire, in a popular ceremony and the newly circumcised youths would wear new ones. This is one important aspect of initiation that can be noted. However, the direct equal of initiation in modern society may be baptism, brought about by religion. People receive new names and acquire new status. It would be unnecessary then that a further adoption of names is done during circumcision. Most important and relevant of all, circumcision was accompanied by intensive instruction on matters of sex, tribal secret among many others. Bottignole (1984:41) say that Sex education was very much emphasized for all who had undergone the practice, to prepare them for a dutiful and responsible adulthood. This may be said to lack today due to evils like prostitution, abortion, pre-marital sex, extra-marital affairs among many others. Modern society may probably borrow a leaf here. Colonization, Western education and religion are very powerful forces that have affected African culture. Through these influences, many cultural practices of the African have been eroded, replaced by alien beliefs and practices and subsequently, a fully changed way of life. However, some practice are so deeply rooted in the mind of African that it would take long and tiresome efforts to eradicate them. In the light of modernization, female circumcision is a health hazard and a cause of many other problems related to social, physical and spiritual aspects of life. Why this was not and still is not so in the traditional sense is because colonization, Western education and religion had no><+_not> much influence as to convince those practised it to stop. In world invaded by the AIDS menace, this practice poses a threat to those on whom it is done and secondly, those doing it. AIDS is a contageous><+_contagious> venereal disease, caused by the HIV virus and has had no cure throughout the world. Apart from being caused or contracted through sexual intercourse, it is also passed over through the use of unsterilized instruments on people, thus infecting them with the virus. In the tradtional sense, the practice offers an easy way through which this virus can be passed on to a whole group of youngsters in the community. Kenyatta (1971:82) says that in the Kikuyu community, the surgeon's knife was only one and it was to be used on every youth who had to be initiated. Secondly, the scar left on the woman's birth canal may bring about complication at birth, painful birth and sexsual><+_sexual> intercourse. Apart from this, it reduces sex libido for the woman, denying her the pleasure of an act supposed to be enjoyed by both partners in marriage. Writing about the position and role of African women, Ssekamwa (1986:13) says, Her position thus, in addition to clitoridectomy, denies her a pleasure she is entitled to. Thirdly, clitoridectomy expose women to chronic vaginal infections. The scar left on the mouth of the vagina after the removal of the clitoris is as good an abode as any for dangerous viruses and bacteria which may even lead to the death of the individual. Some scars may even fail to heal and the woman will experience a lot of pain from it all. Some may get circumcised shortly before marriage. Even though the scar may have healed, sexsual><+_sexual> intercourse will rejuvenate and even expand it, this resulting to excessive and unbearable pain. Fourthly, circumcision of women is a severe and painful act, which may be termed as inhuman. Denying the woman the right to natural feeling of the body through cutting off of parts of that body is against humanity. In some Cushitic communities of Kenya like the Somalis and the Boran, some African countries like Ethiopia and Sudan as well as parts of the middle East, the painful practice of infibulation is practised. This is the scrapping off of all external genitals of a woman, the clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora. This is done with out any anaesthesia and with an unsterilised blade. This is more of mutiliation, punishment and infliction of pain than a deliberate wish to perpetuate any culture, however significant it may be. Among the communities persisting with this practice, most doing it with deliberate awareness of censure, opposition and discouragement from the Government or Govervments, the church, non-Governmental agencies, the press and the general world public. Female circumcison still thrives in Kenya, despite a Government ban imposed on it in August 1982 (Kahiga, Sunday Nation, 27th March, 1994: lifestyle 4 ) Many express their support for this practice in the belief that its failure or eradication may evoke a curse from the ancestors, may make one to miss a husband, may make a woman naughty and dirty or may even make one excommunicated from the community as an outcast. It is, seen in the light of those ignorant of this practice, a thing of the past and can easily be eradicated. However it is deeply rooted in the minds of those who take the practice seriously and to convince them otherwise would take much effort . Mbiti says that clitoridectomy is highly valued in all African communities. However, he adds that (Mbiti, 1992 :97). Such a practice may successfully be adopted to replace the risky cutting off of the genitals for women. However, to divert the attention of those who uphold such a practice requires that they be made aware of its dangers. Miriam Kahiga suggests that education may be a useful tool to fight this practice quoting a research co-ordinator of the Maendeleo ya wanawake organisation, Kihiga says: Mrs. Muuya is convinced that female circumcision is not here to stay. With conscientious research and sensitivity, she say, people will make their own decisions. (Kahiga, Sunday Nation , 4th April 1994: lifestyle 5 ) The education of the masses is a very positive thing do to do in that it will not only help eradicate this practice, but will also accompany sex education which will curb the evils of pre- and extra-marital sex, prostitution, AIDS, abortions, homosexsuality><+_homosexuality> and the problem of street children among others. Mbiti advices><+_advises> that, (1992: 103). Western education serves a very useful purpose in fighting this practice. This is by orienting the youth on the issue of morality and human right. Educated women will not stand to see such risky practices being retained, but will campaign for the recognition of their folk in problems. Concerted efforts between men and women, boys and girls need to be made to ensure that education can be used to fight this practices. Should it be hard to eradicate the practice for any reasons whatsoever, it can be replaced by a gentle, more considerable way of marking this transition from childhood to adulthood. This should emanate from efforts by the Goverment><+_Government>, the church, Govermental><+_Governmental> and non- Govermental><+_Governmental> groups, the press and the public in genital. In conclusion, it is of importance to note that whatever positive featured female circumcision has, the practice itself is not only outdated in modern society, but also risky, unhealthy and poses many other dangers to those who practice it. A campaign for it's eradication should be launched and taken seriously, or alternatively, another way of initiating the youth into adulthood designed and enforced. W1A010K Title: "ALTHOUGH CIRCUMCISION IS A SIGNIFICANT RITE OF PASSAGE, FEMALE CIRCUMCISION SHOULD BE ERADICATED IN MODERN SOCIETY''. DEFINITION Circumcision according to Eliade, M et all (1987;511) is generally the surgical removal of the foreskin from the penis. Early social theorists speculated about circumcision's origins suggesting that it may have 1. marked captives thereby signifying subjection, 2. attracted the opposite sex, 3. been a tribal or ethnic mark, 4. been hygienic, 5. increased sexual pleasure, 6. removed men from materials bonds, 7. tested bravery, 8. sacrificed part of the self to ensure future rebirth, 9. been a form of symbolic castration to suport><+_support> the domination of youths by their elders or even, 10. stimulated menstruation. However Eliade, et all are sceptical about the acceptence><+_acceptance> of these theories today. Circumcision for both male and female is one of the many rites of passages that has profound meaning and practice in Africa and the world at large. The rites of passage include, initiation which according Hasting,j.(1980;314) means "going out'' from a prior state of life be it worldly for an ordinary person or from a monastic life *incase> of one changing to another faith. Other forms of initiation include tooth removing, tattoing><+_tattooing> to mention but a few. Naming denotes "arrival''- entering into the circle of the fully acredited><+_accredited> members of the society. So are marriage and death and belief in the life after completes the circle of rites of passage. SIGNIFICANCE; From the african><+_African> context with particular reference to the Kikuyu female circumcision, regard is taken to it as a the very essence of an institution with enormous educational, social, moral and religious implication quite far from the operation itself. The moral code is bound up with the customs symbolising the unification of the whole tribal organisation. Its social significance lies in the fact that it marks the commencement of participation in various governing group in the tribal administration, because real age-groups begin from the day of the physical operation thus raising the girls's><+_girls'> social status from girlhood to womanhood. The social persons and the natural person are brought into closer conjunction. The endurance of pain and *obsernce> of ritual restriction express both a willingness and a capacity to subject personal appetites and feeling to collective ends. It is relational, as it establishes relationship with the living and the dead. It is experience of sharing life and a vision for life with the centre community. Religiously it signifies the mystery of life and eath as being at its heart. The relationship between the initiate and the ancestors leads to God, The ultimate ancestor. Furthermore, sexual life for which initiation is a prelude, is direct connected to the origins of human experience and existance><+_existence>. Procreation is the means by which the community continues to exist and thrive, affording its immortality. It is educational because it is a forum for impacting /imparting cultural values and fostering attitudes. The initiate is taught to think with the community and see the world as it sees it. She is given a cultural framework or "gramma'', a configuration of images and meaning within which to confront experince><+_experience>. It is as Shorter (1989;5) says; a form of " experince><+_experience> teaching /learning that conforms to the best theories of pupil centred or life-centred education today;. The girl to be initiated is reminded about proper manners of behaving as a girl of her rank, the motherly qualities of a raising a family, a love of her hasband><+_husband> and in-laws, prudence in her decision, hospitality to strangers and duty to the poor. Cognolo C. (1933;85) quotes in emphasis; In the last few days preceding the circumcision, the boys and girls are prepared by a course of instruction, directed by a master chosen from among the old men. This duty is only entrusted to a wise old man, learned in local customs and the love of the tribe, who, assisted by his wife explains to the candidates the rites of conduct and behaviour becoming to a circumcised person and the importance of maintaining the prestige of their sex He aims at impressing deeply in their minds the fact that their years of childhood have now come to an end and that they must begin a new life, nor must they show themself><+_themselves> degenerate of their forebears. It should be noted however that this type of education is gradual and experential><+_experiential>, not simply conceptual. It informs the initiates, forms her attitude and transforms him from earlier inferior status to a higher one; from childhood to mutuarity. as observed by Khamelwa (1990;30) However, significant, clitoridectomy or female circumcision is a controversial issue as discussed in the next sub-topic. CLITORIDECTOMY AS A CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE; Clitoridectomy is the cutting of some portions of the female genitals normally the clitoris or lobial minora or majora. This customary practice widely practised among people of Sudan, Ethiopia, Somali, Djibouti, Mali, Senegal and part of Egypt, Nigeria and East Africa, has been attacked by a number of European urgencies; missionaries, sentimental pro-Africa, Goverment><+_Government> Educational and medical authorities. It is a controversial issue which actually dates back to 1929 when the late Jomo Kenyatta in his book, Facing Mount Kenya (1978; 30-31) noted about missionaries who tried to militantly discourage the practice; ...after several attempts to break down the custom, the church of scotland><+-Scotland> mission to Kikuyu issued an order demanding that all their followers and those who wish their children to attend school should pledge themselves that they should in any adhere to or support this custom, and that they will not let their children undergo initiation rites. Similarly in 1930 the question of the custom of clitoridectomy was raised in the house of commons and a committee of members of parliament was appointed to investigate the matter. These reached an agreement that education other than force of enactment gave freedom to individual persons to choose what custom was best suited to their changing conditions.(Ibid). Again in 1931, a conference on african><+_African> children was held in Geneva where it was argued against this "barbarous custom'' which ought to be abolished by law, making it a criminal offense><+_offence> for anyone who should be found guilty of practicing><+_practising> the custom of clitoridectomy (Ibid.?) An American's Times correspondent Reena Shah (1939) in the article 'Female circumcision' holds that ' COUNTER ARGUMENTS TO SPEARHEAD ERADICATION Clitoridectomy rarely marks sexual maturity where we actually see the process done on infants or children rather than adolescents. Early circumcision may be, as commented on by Eliade et all (1987). (op.cit.) as a mark of ethnicity, or it may be considered hygienic or aesthetically attractive but it does not provide a means by which trauma may be harnessed to the inculcation of moral and metaphysical values, as a test of bravery. However, in societies where circumcision serve as a rite of passage to adulthood, is prevalent in central Australia and East Africa. Women are afforded no comparable process to what and despite any physical operation, remain minor subordination to men, according to the norm that govern social organisation. The inferior position of women in the society has culminated into popular feministics><+_feminist> movements labelled as "Women's liberation movement''. It is their radical effort to come out of that. We can therefore see that actually the intention of clitoridectomy as a process defeats its purpose of adulthood, freedom, independence and general social status for women. Clitoridectomy as a forum for impacting cultural values is not strong enough a point nor an ideal reason for it practice in that, from the societal setting, the time schedule for oral literature is usually at night whenever everybody else is done with his/her responsibility, and are seated by the fire place sharing casual talk. Sometimes in various casual activities/function like at beer places, field work like farming and harvesting, building houses, and *infact> also through a process of imitation where the young ones imitate what the elders do. I therefore refute this argument as not being solid enough, since there are many other occasion where knowledge can be impacted to learners. It is even more evident with the emergence of school, colleges and institutions spearheading rapid advance in technology and civilisation. There is the shift from tradition to modernity. Cultural identity according to me can always be manifested through other ways like naming typical to the society heritage, tatto<<+_tattoo> decorations with minimum pain, dressing habits, language, ethnics><+_ethnic> and geographical location. The eradication of clitoridectomy will definitely, not interfere with cultural identity. Looking at East African with specific reference to Kenya's pluralistic nature of society, we see that contact can never be avoided among the different groups of people; the Europeans,I ndians, Arabs and Africans. Detribalisation can be brought about as a consequence of intermarriage with uncircumcised persons. This is viewed with severe hostility particularly from Kikuyu parents for instance, who eventually succed<<+_succeed> in breaking up marriage relationship or reject their sons and daughters who have refused to comply to tradition. This parental attitude has had deep psychological bearing on couples, bred widespread disobedience and head strength in the "rebellious'' youth, and general misunderstanding among families. Because of this, the family which is a cell of a nation projects and hampers the peace of the entire nation. Clitoridectomy should therefore be eradicated so that there can be free intermarriage, communal living as children of one family, the chosen community of God. Segregation has always emanated from the practice whereby those who have not been initiated are regarded with contempt as inferiors and social outcasts. History holds that the late Oginga Odinga, although he ruled remained a child; implying that he had not the mandate to rule. *Infact> Mbiti j .(1969; 30) says in Nandis society; This implying that a person is incomplete and a nobody. It can be noted then that the practice instead of facilitating social relationship is a vehicle for social discrimination. According to the Nandi female initiation rites, social inferiority and psychological depression may haunt the girl's life for a long time. This is because in the process prior to the operation, distinction is made between virgins who are operated upon while they sit on stools and the non-virgins operated upon while sited on the ground. He observes that [Ibid.] He further continues to say that if the girl is reported to be a coward, or not a virgin, the parents and brothers are so ashamed that they threaten to kill themselves or the girl concerned. We can therefore see that this practice does destabilise and threaten the emotional imbalance, unity and peace of the family and society. Mbiti [l975:97] acknowledges the fact that blood s lost, the operation is very painful, since no pain relieving herbs or other anaesthesia is used. In Ngugi wa Thiong'o's 'The River Between', [l965:56] Muthoni actually died from wound infection. The brutality in which clitoridectomy is practised is climaxed in an article on female circumcision by a Times Corespondent Reena Shah, where he explicitly narrates the process for the Somali woman: Reena [l993:Op.cit]. *Infact> this mutilation leaves one breathless. Although the significance is greatly upheld, the physical delicacy should not be dispensed with. In the same article, report from the health officer from a local government clinic estimates that three out of ten in his area die of heavy bleeding and torn uteruses during childbirth. Some become infertile or incontinent and are divorced by their husbands. He further notes that the biggest causes of death among young girls is sceptic wounds from clitoridectomy. This bring us to the question of human Rights. As pointed out by Charles J. Mctaddan, O.S.A, Ph.D (1967;271) that clitoridectomy is a violation of the principle of totality whereby man has the duty towards the preservation of his life, although moral obligation do not stop at the border line of barely maintaining life within the body. He urges that, much as disease, accident and age will disfigure man, his duty rests upon him as the divinely appointed custodian of his body, to preserve the function integrity of his creation. To sum up this principle, St. Thomas and other theologians, the encyclical of the popes (ibid) argues in respect of body preservation and acknowledgement of human right to its wholesomeness, but is also moral to get rid of the body where the life is threatened. Such cases apply to surgical operation on diseased regions and the life. , observed Pope Pius XII in his address to the Roman Guild of saint Luke; Charles J. (1967: 272). Similarly on October, 1953, Pope Pius XII in the same text, Once again gave expressions to the principle of the totally of the human body in his address to the sixteenth international congress of military, the individual himself, has the right to dispose of his person, the integrity of his body, individual organs and their capacity to function, only to the extend that the general well being of the whole organism demand it''. (lbid:273). From these argument then, the girls has the right of preservation of her body, right to sexual satisfaction, otherwise it endangers the whole body. W1A011K 1. Five reasons why educational psychology is important to teachers It provides knowledge of educational foundation practise that contribute to understanding the principles of teaching and learning. It helps in application of principles teaching to more classroom instruction more effective and *enhencement> of teaching students. It also helps in application of principle of measurement and education in monitoring students progress. Education Psychology is also important because it helps the teachers to identify the conditions conducive for learning and how teaching can bring effective learning. It also helps to identify effective strategies for prospective teaching and practising [...] and how those strategies can be used in a learning situation. Educational psychology also helps the teachers to evaluate their methodology and strategies in teaching. It also helps the teacher to assess learners in many aspects like social background, values, interests and interests. Educational Psychology is also vital because it helps the teacher to identify learners with special needs. Final educational psychology helps the teachers to provide guidance and *councelling> to learners. 1.2. Application At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to add & digit numbers. Organisation. At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to organise themselves and form group discussions. Sound production - At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to produce the sound ch and sh. - At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to read the word belief and believe, loose and lose. 1.3 Identification. this is a kind of defence mechanism which a particular person uses by associating himself with a person who left say is handsome, beautiful, rich or popular so that he can also be seen in that highlight. He wants to be seen by other people to be possessing those qualities of the person he is identifying with. Projection: Projection [...] attributing ones undesirable behaviour or problem to someone else. For instance student who fails in an area may say that he failed because the examiners had set the exam so the areas that he had read yet he knows that he was not serious with the studies. Also a teacher might blame other teachers due to a mass failure in his or her teaching subject. 1.4. Screening Test - This is carried out to pick exceptional children from a general population who are thought to be having some problems. Diagnostic test is carried out to test the magnitude of the deficit with the learners or the degree of the problems with the exceptional children 4.2 Four strategies that a teacher can employ in order to maintain her/his authority and efficiency. Authority. A teacher should be able to maintain his or her authority in a classroom in order to promote effective management of the class. There are various ways in which he/she can maintain his/her authority in a classroom. It is advisable that the teacher maintains his or her dignity in a classroom. He/She should not lower his/her dignity to the matter that the learners are likely to disrespect him or her. The teacher should also be firm but fair in running the classroom. It is also vital for the teacher to be consistent in dealing with various matters affecting the class. For example the teacher should be in a position to control his or temper in case he is argued. He should treat all learners *equaly>. In case of providing rewards to giving punishments the teacher should use the two very wisely. In order to maintain efficiency the teacher can do the following: The teacher should always be prepared when going to classroom to instruct learners The teacher should also be methodical in teaching. It is also *crusial> for the teacher to be punctual all the times. He should be in classroom preferable before the lesson starts. The teacher should also be energetic and healthy. 6.1 Four reasons for assessing exceptional children. It helps the teacher to identify learners with a kind of deficit or those who have some disabilities and also those who require special needs. Assessment also helps the teacher to develop an individual educational programme. This helps the teacher to provide special services to exceptional children. It also helps the teachers in evaluating the individual learners problems and also evaluating the curriculum. Assessment of exceptional children also provides the bases on which the teacher can keep learners in the appropriate educational relevant programme. 6.2. Four advantages of labelling exceptional children It helps in making facilities for the exceptional children It also helps in sensitising the requirements of the exceptional children. This also helps in identifying the children who need special attention from those who are normal. It also helps in *carring> out research on prevalence and cause. Prevalence is the process of identify the number of children with problems from a certain population of people. It also helps in getting the knowledge about the incidence of the problems in a given population. Labelling exceptional children has some disadvantages. The exceptional children are likely to lack a self-concept. The may not have a positive feeling towards themselves This also does not lead to good educational programmes. The children are also likely to feel that they are not accepted in the society. 4.1 The two laws of good classroom management are (1) Prevention is better than cure (2) Self-control of behaviour is better than that that behaviour that is imposed. Prevention is better than cure. It is very important for the teacher to prevent any sort of misbehaviour with barriers before it develops the roots. Once a problem is anticipated it is worthy to get all ways and means of avoiding it because once it is not prevented, it becomes hard to stump out such problem. On the question of self-control, it is worthy noting that the learners should have the ability to control their behaviours. A self-controlled behaviour is more satisfying that the imposed one because that behaviour that is imposed to learners may not be sound to them and they are likely to take time to side with in. 5.2 How to minimize the frustration of learners. The teacher should give challenging tests that are with the capability of the learners in case the problem is hard the learners should be assisted. If it still proves hard to them then the teacher should simplify them or keep aside for another time. The classroom climate can be improved by involving the learners in planning various things in the classroom. The teacher can also provide guidance and *councelling>. The learners should also be involved in active activities. The learners should be involved in such activities like discussion, drama and group work. For the case of the unexpected the teacher should approach such cases with maturity, fact and common sense. In absence of the teacher, another teacher should have been informed in advance to [...] the class. 5.1 Reinforcement is provision of a stimulus in a given situation that increases the probability of a response *occuring> again. Positive reinforcement tends to control the behaviour of learners in a classroom. Once they are reinforced because of a good behaviour they tend to repeat the same behaviour in order to achieve a reward or success in future. A negative reinforcement can also be applied because it tends to determinate undesirable behaviour in the classroom. This happens for instance a teacher withdraws a privilege given to learners because of learners misbehaviour. The learners will realise that such a privilege has been withdrawn from them because of a certain misconduct hence the need to change to a better behaviour. By so doing the teacher will be able to control learners behaviour. Punishment is the application of a stimulus to suppress a behaviour. Punishment should be applied wisely. Punishment in general involved applying something that will make the learners to face pains for instance pinching and slapping. Punishment just like reinforcement is used to control behaviour in a classroom. Unfortunately if punishment is applied unwisely, the learners may even tend to misbehave in a more worse manner than before. Also excessive punishment for instance use of corporal punishment, the learners are likely to react against such treatments. It also causes fear amongst the learners and this makes them not to attend to what is taught. Psychological punishment is a bit fairer than corporal or physical punishment. W1A012K 7.1 1) Enables the teacher to assess the objectives of the lesson to present and see that they are somehow or are related to learners interest. 2) Enables the teacher to asses the age of the learner and know what is preferable for that age for example more jokes involved in learners of 6 to 12 years than of above 18 years. 3) Enables the teacher to evaluate the RRRthe level of intellectual competence of learner *inorder> to present instructions of their level. 4) Enables teacher to single out students who need extra care *incase> of maladjustment or physical defects 5) Enables the teacher to know that students are individuals who are different in many ways and need individual attention. 1.2. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to give reasons, *atleast> five for the cause of poverty in 3rd world countries. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to show *atleast> three reasons for *inculturating> traditional values in modern economic life and show how this can be done. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to tap the desk to produce a sound *rythmical> to the national anthem. 1.3 Identification is a defence *mechanizism> whereby one tries to identify himself or relate oneself with one who is strong, handsome, athletic, successful for example one always talking of the Armed forces and want always to wear clothes of the colour of armed forces and participating in rough games like rugby and taekwodo. Projection is where one fails and would want to show that by *quarraling> other for example where a wife is quarrelled by the husband and she goes to beat the children or being rough to them. A teacher who doesn't get on well with the fellow teachers would always want to quarrel the learners. 1.4 Screening is singling out without any testing using any gadget. This is by observation only. A learner with problematic eyes can be screened by observing how he look on to the book and far away objects. Diagnostic is where a test is performed using instrument for example there can be clinical blood test to see the number of student who have been infected by Aids virus. For special children a speed test can be given to see the highly talented learners who can take short-hand in the least time possible. 2.1 1) The learner must be protected from bodily harm. The learner in boarding school must have their halls of residence burglar proved to prevent any entry by foreigner and harming the learners 2) No amount of money exceeding one hundred shillings should be kept by the learner. The school should ensure that it collects excess money and have in a save place for the learners who can request for it when in need. 3) When constructing classrooms and other buildings for educational purposes, the direction of the prevailing wind must be taken into consideration. There have been cases where classes have been blown up while learners are in them. It is the responsibility of the administration of the school to have stronger building with windbrakers from the wind prevailing direction. 4) Psychological safety for the learner. In an educational instruction serious information should pass through the school guidance and *councilor> before teaching the learner, information such as sudden lose of a parent, sibling or any other close relative of the learner should not reach him/her directly for it can threaten deeply his/her educational achievements. 2.2 Intervariations are differences found among learners in how they present themselves in class and when with the others, this can be observed by seeing that some student tend to make *alot> of deafening noise while others are quiet, some read loudly while others quietly. The Educational Strategy is to try very much to give work that is instructional work requiring group discussion so that through the presence of them the loud readers can minimize their loudness or the *noice> makers are influenced by other to keep quiet or have minimal *noice> while working with others. Intra variation is the differences *occuring> within oneself. These differences are the RRRthe attitudes and value one have toward things thoughts, feelings and actions. They are manifested by for example self-withdrawal from others or one being rough to the others. The intra variations are mostly hereditary unlike intravariations which may be *environmentary> acquired through interactions. Education strategy to foster the desirable variations (intra) for example having individualized instructions for the highly talented learners to avoid boredom. Give the extra talented or gifted a challenging task different from the less talented. 3.1 1) The person has a low opinion of him or herself. He or she looks oneself down as unable to succeed in various activities. The person of this kind keep away from challenging activities and won't want to attempt because of fear of failure. A good example is where a learner may think himself ugly may be due a certain physical defect and which always be keeping to himself to avoid ladies be it in the mess or in class. 2) The tendency to overdo any given activity. This is as a result of extra high opinion of oneself and even does not follow instructions. An example is where a learner is asked to list at least three cases of maladjustment and goes on giving ten or fifteen. cases. 3) One is unable to relate to others of opposite sex and whenever he meets anyone of opposite sex, he either abuses her or acts to disgust her. An example is where a learners *bullys> or is always quarrelling others of opposite sex and projects his failure to them and talking negatively of their actions ie ladies are thick headed, they can't be able to reason like men, they say 'yes' where they mean 'no'. 3.2 Kwame Nkuma was one of the best philosopher who advocated for African rights in their own land. Mzee Kenyatta was the first President of Kenya after independence. The most universalized celebration is the Christmas that most people in the world are much concerned. The sun is at the tropic of cancer on 21st June every year. Kenya is located on middle eastern part of African continent. Iceland is the world most exporter of Tomatoes. Most deserts (hot) are located on the northern hemisphere. 3.3 1) Encouraging individual activities 2) Offering freedom in personal activities 3) providing with varieties of activities 4) giving challenging task and asking for personal attitudes towards the task. 6.1 1) The Assessing is to provide them with necessary education or career that they are interested in or are most capable of. 2) To provide with the necessary learning and teaching equipments><+_equipment> to effect their educational instructions. 3) The assessing can call upon the government to provide with special schools or opportunity to go abroad where these schools are available. 4) To individual the educational instructional information because now the teacher knows of the individual differences of the exceptional ones. 6.2 Advantages 1) The community is alerted of the Presence of the exceptional ones *inorder> to develop an attitude to appreciate them and provide the necessary material or financial assistance towards their development ie in their chosen career. 2) The training of special teachers can be initiated to deal with the education of the exception ones. 3) There can be develop an international awareness of the exceptional ones and in this respect is the exchange of financial, material and moral or technology skills on an international scale. 4) The exceptional ones can be utilized for helping others within the same class, school or on a wider scale assisting in the community development where his or her skills are in scarcity. Some exceptional children are highly capable of leading others to working on their newly initiated tasks. disadvantages 1) labelling may result in creating a high or low opinion of the exception ones by themselves and may result in adopting *uncessary> psychological defence mechanism. 2) In a rigid community the people will always look down on these exceptional ones because they don't want change or as a curse to the community. 3) The labelling will call forth for creation of new specialized schools or colleges to cater for the exceptional ones and this shall call upon extra funds which may not be available. 4) There is always the act of brainwash from one county to another where for example when a country like U.S.A. know of an exceptional gifted child, it will work to it's best to have the child educated and work in that county, this is depriving the other country of its gift. W1A013K 1.1. Educational psychology is important to teachers because: It helps to assess all the aspects of learners. This includes attitudes, interests, family background, values and intellectual capacity of the learner. It helps to identify effective learning and teaching strategies that can be used by both practising and prospective teachers and show that strategies can be used in teaching. It helps to identify learners with special needs for example the special children who includes the physically disabled, mentally handicapped. It helps the teachers to evaluate their teaching methods and instructional materials. And this helps to identify effective learning. It helps to identify effective teaching and learning materials that facilitate effective classroom instructions. It also helps to identify conducive learning conditions that inhibit and facilitate desired learning such as classroom climate. 1:2 At the end eg the lesson, the learner should be able add One to two and get the correct answer. (1+2). At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to write a composition on the heading, My first day in Secondary School. At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to pronounce the word choose and chose so as to he got clearly by the teacher. (1.3) Identification is a kind of defence mechanism Where a person tends to relate or associate with somebody else whom he believes he has some better characteristics of qualities so that he can also be valued or viewed at the same level with that person. For example a short girl may by to stay always close or make friends with a tall one so as to be recognised. Or a lady may by to relate with a handsome or beautiful lady so that she can also be seen beautiful. Projection is a kind of defence mechanism where a person tries to project or direct his or her undesirable qualities to another person. For example a student who cheats in class will accuse or blame others of cheating for example in an examination. Or a woman who is selfish will call other women selfish people. (1.4) Screening in special education is a kind of an examination whereby the children who have special needs are identified. This is done following some criteria where children are assessed from a large population or a big group are picked out. They use some kind of questionnaire. There is set limit for assessing the need for example in Kenya children from six years are tested of the *defficiency>. Diagnostic test is used to detect the degree or magnitude of the *defficiency>. This is done in a classroom which has the same level of students. They check language, cognitive, emotional, and speech development plus psychomotor development of the child. Also sight is included. There are various equipment used of test devices, these include such thing as a torch, a red *tassle> for the test of visions, colourless heeds, a ball to test *cordination> of hand - eye and also the sound producing for test of hearing. 4.1 The two laws of good classroom management state that self control is better than imposed control. The other states that prevention is better than cure. In reference to the first one, the teacher should not impose rules and regulations on students without giving them freedom to choose what they would like to do but he should consult them. Students should not be left to behave they way they want despite the freedom. The teachers should intervene. The other law means that the teacher should not leave the problem to continue when he notices it appearance but should apply corrective and preventive strategies for the control of the problem. If the problem is just left to grow and continue, to extinguish it will be quite hard so at the first notice of the problem, the teacher should apply all the control techniques. 4.2. In order for the teacher to maintain his Activity he must be: The teacher must maintain dignity in front of the class. He should conduct himself in a way that students recognize himself as the class teacher and not just an age mate to joke with. The teacher should be consistence. This means that he should know how he is going to conduct himself throughout the teaching period. Not to be too strict sometimes and other times he is too harsh such that learners are defeated on how to behave. Also the teacher should reward and punish appropriately. This means that he should reward the desirable behaviour and punish the undesirable behaviour without discriminating against any student. Punishment and reward should follow or should be done immediately. In order to maintain his authority the teacher should be firm but fair. This means that he should not for example give student the marks they do not deserve simply because he knows them. Also he should not be too strict to students as to cause threats to them. 4.2 *Inorder> for a teacher to maintain his efficiency in classroom, he should be prepared and also organise his materials systematically. This calls for the preparation of a lesson plan and a scheme by work which will include lesson objectives. The teacher should be punctual in his work. This means that he should not come very late in class but if possible, he should try to reach the class even before the students so that he may teach whatever he has without wasting time. Also the teacher should be highly methodical if he wants to be efficient in his classroom. This means that he should have good and clear methods of instructions that are going to help the learner to achieve their goals. And the other point, the teacher must have self clarity this means that he must make himself clear to the learners. And for him to have clarity, he must do this. The teacher should get the attention of learners, he should give them instructions clearly as possible, then he should call a pupil to repeat the instructions *occassionally>. The RRRthe teacher should alternate talk activities with silent activities in the classroom. He should not allow students to ask questions on procedures while the lesson is on. During the silent period or activities, none should talk, including both the teacher and the learners. The teacher should use body language ie gestures be give any necessary instructions. Assessing exceptional children is important because it helps to identify the children with special needs. For example identifying the mentally handicapped. It also helps the teacher to develop the individual instructional programme which helps in meeting the needs of these child who needs special attention. It helps to improve the curriculum in regard to the needs of these children for example to lay new objectives which put them in considerate. Assessing children with special needs is also important because it helps to provide the learning materials required by these children. 6.1. There are four limitations of levelling those children. It can lead to wrong classification whereby the child is put in the wrong group or category. It lowers self concept whereby these children feel that they are less or inferior to the others. It can affect the *carreer> of the learners due to wrong classification. It does not lead to relevant educational programmes because it might not be easy to meet all their needs. Advantages. If [educational] policy matters on the needs of these children whereby they put them into consideration. It helps in provision of effective or corrective learning and teaching materials that are required by the children. It raises research for laws and prevalence so as to try and minimize the causes for this problem. 5.1 Reinforcement in classroom is effective more than punishment because reinforced responses tends to be repeated more than the ones that are not reinforced. Positive reinforcement will make students to repeat or put more effort. For example if you tell a student 'very good' after he has performed well, he will put more effort than when you just keep quiet without saying anything. The law of reinforcement states that reinforced *responces> tend to be repeated but the ones that are not reinforced tends to be discontinued. Excessive reinforcement may be destructive. So the teachers should reinforce occasionally. Punishment is less effective as compared to reinforcement. This is so because the learners may hate vary severe punishment and severe punishment may make a undesirable behaviour permanent. All the same, they are effective because the wrong behaviour has to be eliminated. You cannot reward wrong behaviour but it should be eliminated. Both reinforcement and punishment are effective to learning but reinforcement is more effective since learning under reinforcement is more effective than learning under punishment. (5.2) *Inorder> the teacher to minimize the frustrations of learners, he should *asign> the learners activities that are of his level of performance of ability: If the task is RRRis challenging or hard, he should help them to tackle it or should be kept to be attempted some other time. Improving the classroom climate. The teachers should personalize the instructions. This is where he will relate to a learner as an individual and should help them in individual problems. The teacher should not dictate to learners but should consult them and involve them in decision making. He should provide activities that make the learner to be active and not passive for example should have discussions. The teacher should reward the desirable behaviour and push the undesirable behaviour properly. He should not use verbal punishing behaviour. Also he should let the learners to feel his presence and establish good teacher student relationship. In order to deal with unexpected events, for example if it is an accident, he should change the lesson activity to another practical activity such as field activity from the classroom. In case of visitors, he should ask another teacher to come and keep watch in classroom while he is away. Also he can ask the students to appoint a class teacher who they think will guide them in absence of the teacher. The teacher should also *asign> the learners a task to perform while he is away for example, he can give them a mathematics *asignment>. In case of others like the appearing of a snake, the teacher should act in a responsible and mature manner. W1A014K 6.1. Reasons for assessing exceptional children are:- The assessments enable us to confirm the *defficiencies>. A disability or a special case might cease yet we keep the learner in the same conditions of real cases on that *defficiencies>. This may affect his performance since hes><+_he's> in a different category of persons after healing. We also assess to determine the magnitude of the *defficiencies> if its presence is confirmed. We identify mild cases, moderate cases and intensive cases (severe cases) Placement of the right person at the right place is another reason why we assess special children, we're able to take successful victims to further classes while we repeat the education of those whose development hasn't yet satisfied conditions We also assess to guide the parents and teachers on the best means of handling the victim whether socially, academically or physically depending on the noted disability. We also assess to establish, if any, the type of external help that we may seek to the affect eg doctors, physiotherapists and oral therapists To be able to formulate an (I.E.8) for them that is individual education programme. 6.2. Four advantages of labelling exceptional children are:- The *labells> enable us to formulate the appropriate individual educational programmes. After confirmation of the *defficiency> cases and their Magnitudes we are able to establish the best programme of studies and experiences for the individuals which we then recommend. The establishment of disabilities *labells> enables the teachers to search the appropriate external assistance. He for the Physiotherapists or even <*/>oratherapists to assist in the development of the leavers. Through the labelling of these cases we are able to direct the parents and family or community in general to the right and appropriate institution where to take the learner. For guiding and counselling purposes we make use if the *labells> given by the assessors of the special children. We are able to know what social, political, spiritual and moral advice we can give to the children and their families We are also able to know the *dissabilities> our learners have The limitations of labelling are: The *labells> themselves punches an inferiority complex in the victims. They feel neglected and unfortunate members of their society. This affects their academic and even social progress Mistaken identifications are so detrimental to the victims life. If we locate or place a learner with the wrong case or the wrong magnitude of the right case, we end up exposing him to a very meaningless and curriculum which ruins his development We must *labell> but give no definite magnitude of degree of *defficiency>. We talk of mentally *handicaped> but don't know the degree. This paralyses and makes difficult the efforts to assist the victim. Over disadvantages in those with multiple *defficiencies> like mentally *handicaped> blind and physically crippled persons. If you take him to a blinds' school you deny the physical side as dues, if you take him to physically disabled schools, the same So you cud up in a confusion. The *labells> *allienates> the learners from the community especially if it leads to him being him being taken to a school of residence a boarding school. 5.2. Quite a number of preventive *controll> strategies that a teacher can employ to deal with unexpected cases in his class. These unexpected cases are to do with accidents where members of the class and for school community might be victims. They also could be unexpected festivals like drama, music, tournaments and even parents and special schools with no short notices. They could be unexpected noises from Airforce or army operations around or above the institution. First aid kits should be installed in every building in the school to deal with urgent cases. Learners should be educated of first aid to provide for services in case of demand. If the accident is severe enough the teacher in the company, of another and some students should take the victim for medical attention. However he should leave the class under the *controll> of another teacher by the learners of a class monition assorted or *ellected> by the learners. When left they should engage in some activity opted on by learners or the teachers selection *Incase> of air and ground noise the teacher should try to get full attention of the learners to minimise the experience of the noise Visiting days should be organised by the teacher by informing his students and preparing with them some activities to be carried out which will have some <*/>acadim benefits like topical public lectures and exhibits Classroom climate includes spacing of the facilities in there, spacing and crowding of leavers; Air conditions in the class Temperatures in the classroom and *infact> the psychological climate of other boredom of activity in the class To *controll> this the teacher should make sure that the lighting system is perfect before using any room. If bulbs and tubes are *inorder> they be replaces. Good ventilation for light during the day should be taken advantage of through longer portions of the walls being transparent by mirrors. There should be good circulation of air and if possible overhead or side fans to fan the air in the room. The class should be kept moody and jovial by jokes and relevant topics with maximum involvement of the learners. Frustrations in a class are caused by too difficult tasks and continuous failures of learners despite efforts put in the *opperations>. The teacher should give relevant topics of discussion or assignment to learns The teacher should issue out tasks that match with the level of the learns knowledge. Not too hard or too simple. The teacher should give challenging tasks When the tasks are performed the teacher should thank and congratulate all for their trials. More regards should be to the best performers and encouragement to low performers given hopes and morale to try harder and with assurances of success. 5.1. Reinforcement is the activity by the teachers to enhance, facilitate and encourage positive feedback got from the learners. Punishment is the activities engaged in by the teachers as a measure of suppressing unwanted or negative reactions and behavior of the leans. Its better for a learner to advance through reinforcements than through punishments. When students do well and they are rewarded the behavior is *internaled> and repeated but when they do poorly and they are punished they tend to try to conform. They are <*/>extrinsically motivated while in the cases of reinforcement and reward they develop intrinsic motivation in the responses. Reward and reinforcements when used for poor performers uplift their morale of working harder and hence improving positive behavior. This contrasts punishments when used for the same poor performers. They feel neglected, unwanted and *allienated> from the community. They develop a negative attitude towards the lesson and even memorize just to pass and avoid punishments. 2.1. Four safety/psychological needs are. Safety and security of learners property Safety and security of learners body Safety and security of learners health The *Maintanance> of learners dignity The *Maintainace> of learners esteem needs The *Maintanace> of leaner need to progress The love the leans requires from society The handling of the learners as a human being with worth Some educational strategies for these are. property: The school should provide facilities for safe storage of students properties. The administration should discourage learners against carry large sums of cash money. Safety of the body: The school should be fenced to prevent wild animals It should be burglar proof to prevent thieves and robbers who might shoot or hurt physically, The learners. the health should be maintained through proper sanitation; proper wastes and garbage disposal. The dignity of the learners should be upheld by praising and due thanks. The learner should not be insulted or humiliated. Neither should he be subjected to corporal punishments which may ruin him psychologically The learners curiosity should be taken seriously and when he asks questions he should be assisted. 2.2 Inter-variations of learners *reffers> to the differences between learners while intra-variations implies the differences inside or within one particular learner. An example of inter-variation is found in interests, abilities attitudes and even in career. One learner could be more *inteligent> in terms of IQ than another. Where interest vary you may have a learner interested in mathematics while another is interested in music. An Educational strategy for diagnosing these is taking learners as individuals and encouraging each in his/her ow-field of interest. The learns interest should be respected. Where gifted and talented cases are. The attention should be directed there. Intra-variations examples are: One person may have s positive attitude and liking for one subject and fail to have such for the other eg Mathematics and Language. If this happens an educational strategy could be to encourage him to develop the area of his interest fully. Also a learner could be clever in class but poor at home economically A strategy to prevent wastage of such a brain would be application for a bursary or a harambee funds drive for him. 1 II Educational psychology provides us with relevant theories and principles of establishing good learning environments for our pupils. It also enables us to establish learners with special needs and hence take relevant measures in that effect. It enables us to be able to evaluate own teaching methodologies noting the strengths and weaknesses It enables us to stall objectives relevant for our teaching and learners parts. It enables us to acquire knowledge of assessing own learners progress. I.3 *Defense> mechanism of identification is a situation where one weak person or one who in one way or another feels inferior identifies or associates with a *successfull>, known, respected, reputable and a social figure in efforts to share the glory of the character and be viewed as of the same type. Projection is a situation where one tries to suppress his weaknesses or *inabilites> by attributing then to others. One might blame and pretend to look down upon those who are *anable> to win ladies, be rich or be *successfull> by saying that they are wrong or weak. Unfortunately hes><+_he's> talking of himself. If one is caught stealing in an exam or cheating he may say that others were also copying and cheating. I.4 Screening is a test which is carried out in special learners. it is meant to establish whether the disability test exist or not. The test is also used to determine the magnitude of the disability in learners eg. Their reading problem, their psychomotor weaknesses, their recall problems. It tests all levels - cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Diagnostic testing is used to determine the level of achievement of a learner it deals with, *suposedly> tree levels of knowledge but in most cases we find *defficiencies> in these tests such exams like K.C.P.E, KC.S.E are examples. I.2 Application: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to state clearly five advantages and four disadvantages of <*/>pointry. Organization: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to name four reasons for dependence and interdependence in the society bearing in mind the friendships and socialization systems. Sound Production: At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to articulate and state the following statement continuously in three seconds: "She sells sea shells at the W1A015K Looking at the discourse fragment, we find that a speaker in spoken discourse will employ certain methods so as to achieve the communicative purpose. Firstly the speaker may employ the use of prosodic feature in communicating for example the speaker will use prosodic features such as tone and pitch to communicate effectively. This can be seen when the tone is high eg "John get out!" here the message will have been effectively communicated for the interlocutor will get to know that the speaker of the message is serious and will *definately> abide by the instruction on the other hand, the speaker may employ the politeness maxim to communicate effectively for example "Mary, please get me some water." The use of this politeness maxim will create a conducive atmosphere such that the recipient will accomplish what is being asked that is action will result due to the politeness of the request. Another method that the speaker may employ is the use of paralinguistic features such as body movement and gestures to attain effective communication For example when using gesture, the RRRthe speaker may [...] and say "You didn't do better than me anyway" there the facial expression will register the message and the communicative purpose will have been achieved. Yet still the speaker may regard his audience when talking that is 'eye contact" this is very important for the speaker if its through such methods that he will be able to get a Feedback if the message is communicated or not, For *atimes> one may end up boring his interlocutor, hence eye contact is very necessary. Yet still the speakers choice of words of lexical features should not be sidelined since we know that discourse occurs within a context so for effective communicative purposes, the speaker has to use the language that is applicable within the given environment for example if its a headmaster talking to P.T.A meeting he may open his address as follows "ladies and gentlemen... Parents teachers ..." this choice of words will be very different with words to address the school assembly, hence the speaker in this instance will have to bear in mind the a choice of words or rather the code of language to be used. However it is also important for the speaker to be fluent in his/her speech and also avoid ambiguity where *Neccesary>. Looking at a discourse fragment by a writer we find that the writer too have to employ certain methods so as to achieve the communicative purpose This includes the type of orthographic and graphics that the writer tends to use the type face of the material and arrangements in chapters where necessary to make the unity in the message clear. The writer has to be clear on the use of cohesion in his work and this he can do by using cohesive devices such as *elipsis> and conjunctions the conjunctions such as and RRRand besides will join up his ideas into a systematic flow of thought, whereas *elipses> will make the work more clear by eliminating unnecessary repetition. The writer has a wide range and time to choose his words especially that suits his intended recipients. For example his choice of words when writing a story to primary children will *definately> differ with those used when writing to *tartiary> institutions, when this is put into consideration, the communicative purpose of the writer will have been achieved The writer will employ the use of Metalinguistic features to deliver his message home. The writer may also bring in the idea of using photographs in his works, lets say a story book for emphasis and thus he can flip in a picture on of the scenes, just to captivate the readers interest, so we find that the writer too has many method at this disposal to help him acquire the communicative purpose. Therefore looking at the above points one can infer then that for effective communicative purpose to be achieved, certain methods have to be employed by discourse participants. Q 3a. Discourse is language in use and it can be either written or spoken discourse it is functional language. However there are certain elements found within discourse fragments or need to be employed to make discourse *coherant>. Taking the case of spoken discourse, we find that the sequential presentation of information is very important to *attein> *coherant>. i.e the ideas should flow *systematicaly> without unnecessary *breakages> or interruptions for example speaker A may say A "How much do these oranges cost? then without interruption speaker b should follow and reply on the same topic eg B "The ones in front here are ten shillings each bundle ... ehm but I'll add you don't worry." So such presentation of information in a sequential manner helps to make discourse *coherant> especially in spoken discourse. On the other hand, we find that in written discourse this can be *atteined> by adhering to certain grammatical rules eg the use of conjunctions to link up ideas is very important and it *creats> the smooth flow of thoughts in a given discourse. Written discourse has an advantage in the sense that in most cases, the topic does not change quite frequently as in spoken discourse hence we find that in written discourse the use of linear presentation of ideas makes discourse *coherant>. So the systematic representation of events for example in a Novel helps to *creat> *coherance> in the discourse. In written discourse the sequence of presentation is very important such that this must be the introductory part, the middle and the conclusion when it is followed then written discourse will be *coherant>. Another important element to consider is the Mode of the discourse fragment that is how the massage has to be passed across. Q 3b. In a discourse fragment, it is very important to achieve unity in the massage being *determinated> or put across, for its only when the message has achieved unity that one can be assured of a clear message being put across that is a message free from ambiguities to attain this unity, there are certain cohesive devices that are employed, in a piece of text such as 1. Conjunction: These are very important in creating unity in a discourse fragment for example the use of copular conjunctions such as and helps in linking ideas together especially those that have some similarities instead of repeating the whole phrase again, so here we find that ideas are effectively linked through conjunctions. also the use of other conjunctions such as but, however etc for contrasting ideas and furthermore besides for additional information all *creat> writing in a given piece of discourse hence creating *coherance> in the work. This is not only important for creating unity but also to avoid repetition which otherwise makes the work to be cumbersome. 2. Substitution: This cohesive device is very important in creating unity in a discourse Text. and its use to substitute certain words which can make the text long and clumsy for example instead of using "... Mary and Jane were punished." especially in a subordinate clause, we can substitute this with They. also substitution is important in a piece of discourse for it helps in erasing Monotony for instance by substituting Nouns with pronouns eg "Peter went to town and *Peter met his friend John" This can be replaced by *possesive> pronoun eg "Peter went to town and met his friend John." Thus we find that substitution is very *neccesary> for it not only creates unity but also removes the ambiguity that can be found therein. 3. *Elipses>: This is a cohesive devices that helps to *creat> unity in a text for it helps in omitting certain repetitive words in a text which makes the text ambiguous and so *elipses> helps in making the text more clear. hence we find that omission is very important in creating cohesion in a given text. but then its the omission of a constituent that will not affect the meaning of the given text. 4. Choice of lexical features: This is very important in creating unity within a piece of text. Here I mean words that some from the same family tree, this helps in creating unity for example if the topic is on Mountains then certain words like ascending, descending Peek of the Mountain should come in the same text, this choice of same word group. helps in creating unity within a given text and so it makes the message to be quite clear and understood. Q 4a. Conversation is the communication (oral) between two or more people. However in discourse Analysis, there are certain general principles to be followed to enable effective communication, for example for an effective conversation to take place, it is *neccesary> that all the participants have to contribute to the conversation, this makes the conversation more lively with not only one person dominating the scene, and even when it comes to this, the participants or each one of them have to contribute or rather come in at the right time thus avoiding *unneccesary> interruptions as much as possible Another principle of communication demands that the politeness maxim has to be observed for the smooth flow of the conversation. One has to be polite to the people he/she in *interracting> with for this will *creat> harmony among the concerned participants. Another conversational principle is that the people involved, have to listen to each other, at least give time to listen and, think what the other participant is saying. Yet still the principles demand that whatever one is contributing, have to be true in the sense that you can verify the information you are putting across to the other participants. In contribution one has to be relevant to the topic being discussed and not digress outside the issue at hand for things will *creat> unity and meaning of the conversation. 4b. The four maxim discussed below are very important in conversation for they help the sender and receiver to interpret and understand each other in communicative exchange. (a) Quantity: here the participants are required to make contribution as informative as is required. This is *neccesary> for the sender has to given information only on an issue that he is well conversant with and so there's the need to avoid irrelevancy hence one has to be informative as required. This becomes *neccesary> especially in a spoken discourse since the speaker who could be the sender is under pressure of time to give the information according to time allotted hence there's no room for irrelevance by giving *alot> of stories before coming to the main issue. This on the other hand also helps the receiver to *interprete> well and understand the message since *alot> of tit bits have to be eliminated by this maxim hence it stresses and calls on the sender to be straight to the point. Thus one has to contribute only what one is required to or is expected to offer without stretching outside the zones. This is important for if the sender has many things to say, the receiver may even sideline the main issue or forget due to these other small topics brought about in the conversation. b. Quality: This maxim demands that the participants should not say what they believe is false. This maxim is important, one doesn't have to give false information just to keep the conversation going for this will eradicate trust on the part of the participants eg the receiver and may lead to wrong interpretation of the message altogether. Again this maxim is important for effective conversation to take place since if one tends to give false information, this may result to arguments by the other participants calling on the sender to verify the information and this is time wasting and also erodes the harmony of the conversation therefore for the sender and the receiver to understand each other, this false information has to be avoided, in any case effective communication normally prevails where there's trust and confidence for example if you constantly give false information, eventually the receivers *sumarily> dismissed for the sender and doesn't look at any information given by such a sender as meaningful and purposeful; This too will *creat> luck of understanding among the participants as falsehood has to be avoided at all costs For if understanding is not there, thus communication cannot take place effectively c) Relation:- This maxim call on the participants to be relevant. This maxim in very *neccesary> especially in verbal communicative exchange, this is because in most cases, spoken discourse tends to drift away from one topic to another and if not taken into consideration the participants may deviate from the main topic of discussion. Thus both the sender and receiver must contribute to the relevance of the conversation by trying to stick to the main topic of discussion without bringing in new ideas that are not relevant to the subject. Once the participants stick to the relevant issue of the conversation then they will attain unity in the conversation and will understand one another quite clearly. This will mean that they are talking on the same issue and so be able to *interprete> it correctly and so contribute effectively hence the success of the communicative exchange. Relevance as a maxim is very important for it erodes the ambiguity that could otherwise have resulted in leading to misinterpretation and confusion among the participants. Therefore adhering within the lines of a given topic is very important to *creat> understanding D. Manner: The manner of communicative exchange calls on participants to be clear, brief and orderly avoiding any ambiguity. This maxim is very important for any effective communicative exchange to take place, take for example the sender, he has to be clear in his speech i.e be fluent so as to avoid misunderstanding of the message being communicated, the information given also has to be clear with no mixing up of points, this is to make the receiver on the other hand to understand well the message being passed across. brief; its important to be brief in a communicative exchange this is *neccesary> since all the participants need to have a chance to respond also on the given topic Yet briefness still embodies clarity, hence being briefs helps the sender and the receiver to *interprete> messages effectively for long messages tends to be confusing and this creates lack of understanding due o misinterpretation of so many points put together. Orderly. This is a very important maxim for it creates unity in the discourse through the linear presentation of facts in a given manner. Orderliness is important for it erodes ambiguity, for this is avoided by not mixing issues, but better the facts should be presented in a sequential flow, this will help the receiver to follow and have a clear interpretation which will eventually lead to understanding of what actually the sender wanted to convey. Mixed up information is very difficult to interpret and also due to time pressure that the participants may find themselves in so its *neccesary> to contribute in a brief clear and orderly manner, that is to be explicit enough for better understanding among the two participants. W1A016K (i) Language always occurs in a context. This means that language always gets its meaning when it is used within a context, which could be social, cultural, formal, informal and even cognitive. For example, in a social context where there are a group of men in a drinking situation the language that that they use there is only the type that is appropriate for that context. In the same way language gets its meaning when it is used within a cultural context and that, for example refers to the cultural background of those who are involved, for instance an African speaking with a European or it could be on tribal basis, the language that that they use RRRuse there must be within that particular context- Another example of language *occuring> always in a context, could be cognitive, that is *refering> to the past or what is already known and again the language that is spoken to a university student cannot be used for a primary school child because the context is different, this applies to religious and political context. So language always occurs in a context means that it occurs within a particular background for which particular words and language used must be appropriate. (ii) Language is context sensitive. That means that in language use one must *interprete> the language within the context in which it is used, because for every context, there are particular language patterns that must be used for appropriateness, like if you find on the road the word stop! - Obviously within that context it is appropriate because you know accidents have to be avoided on the rod. But if you find that kind of notice at the door of a church it would be out of context. Again, for example on the way when people are walking and somebody begins to ask people to pray it is out of context and inappropriate. So language is context sensitive means that language gets meaning within the context, when it is used appropriately - because if you don't consider the context in which you use your language you are likely to go wrong or sound as if you are not alright. (iii) Language is always communicative. This means that language is meant to communicate information, it is informative, that language carries a message that has to be delivered, but not just for the sake of it - but it carries within it something of use that has to inform someone who is to receive it and it has to have a message for example when you read on the road. ACCIDENT AHEAD! that is communicative. It gives you a message that you should be careful. It informs you of the possibility of having accidents if you are not careful. (IV) Language is designed for communication. This means that when you use language you mean it for somebody to receive it. That is there have to be recipients of whatever is communicated. If you are a speaker, you must have the audience in mind who are the recipients of the message and if you are a writer you must have in mind the reader, who are the audience and recipients in the mind, a speaker does not speak alone but to a receiver of the message and in the same way a writer does not write for himself but for the reader and in that case whatever or whenever language is used it has to be communicative it must communicate having in mind the audience the reader, eg in a rally there has to be audience and a writer for instance of a novel has in mind the reader. The four rules that help the speaker and hearer *interprete> and understand each other in a conversational exchange are. 1) Both the speaker and the hearer must contribute in the conversation. That is because communication is a two way traffic kind of relationship, they must both give their views, when they contribute there must be response. 2) When they contribute they must attribute at the right time. That is they must take turns in this, because it is not one person to dominate the talk without giving chance to the other, and there must be no *interuption> when the other is speaking but you must patiently wait for your turn in order to hear exactly what the other has to say. And so that the other may explain himself or herself properly. 3) Another rule of communication between a speaker and hearer is that, they must contribute what is informative, that is they don't just say anything but they must communicate or give a message in their contribution in the conversation because if someone comes up with something which does not inform the other interlocutor it means that it is just for the sake of it. 4) Again in a conversational exchange, one must not contribute or say anything which is is convinced is not true. In other words whatever is said must not be false, because it is possible for one to say something which he or she knows is not true but they just go a head to say it for sake of keeping the conversation going on. 5) One must say something that he or she is able to verify, that is you must be able to support your contribution, you must be able explain yourself and make it clear, in case there is any doubt about it. 2. a) In spoken discourse the speaker has to pay *alot> of attention when speaking because once he has spoken it is not possible to correct the words, for example if it is an insult it is not possible to take the words back so the speaker has to pay *alot> of attention and choose his or her words before he speaks then unlike in written discourse because in written discourse the writer writes in the privacy of his or her study and has the time to choose his or her words. In this case again the writer is not under pressure like the speaker who has to say what he wants to say when the time allocated to him or her and because of that he or she is under pressure of time. The speaker has at the disposal a wide range of linguistic features that he can use to communicate his language, (message) for instance he can vary his tone or voice from loud to low, he can shout and he can whisper and in this way he can also reveal his feelings, he can use intonation, stress, and can even use his body can nod his head or shake it and like that he can be helped to bring home the message as he wants it. But all these paralinguistic features are denied to the writer, he has not way he can reveal his feelings as he writes because he has no immediate audience as such. And also in spoken discourse, the speaker has control of the audience, that is he has to speak to them face to face and therefore he can get the feedback immediately because he audience are immediate unlike the writer who cannot get immediate feedback from the audience because the reader is not around as the writer writes. Another thing is that the speaker and the writer are both having the same purpose they both use the language to communicate an information and they must have recipients to the message either immediate or intended like in the case of written and they must both be communicative While the written discourse's function is to keep information, that is it is meant for recording of information for example a word is meant to keep a record or information about whatever the writer thought. Spoken discourse is mostly meant for social interaction, or that is for establishing relationships among friends or *interacters> - or it is also used for transactional reasons that is to move information from one place to another or from one person to another. Written discourse moves language or discourse from oral domain to visual domain where it is kept and is read using eyes. Another difference in written discourse and spoken discourse is that written discourse is permanent that is once it is written it can be kept almost *permanentely> if it is not *distroyed>. Like books are kept permanently in libraries and achieves. but spoken discourse in not permanent because somebody can forget what he or she said sometimes back or even deny that he or she said it in that case it is not permanent like written discourse. 2b(a) This is a whole story of the councillor charged. It develops slowly from the introduction which has the topic of the councillor charged. Then we are introduced to the reason why he is charged that is for burning down the residence of the city mayor. We are introduced to the kind of man he is, his age - and that it was he was arrested after a man armed with paraffin can was hiding near a telephone booth. And the structure develops when we are told of what was the problem between him and the RRRthe mayor. Before that we had been told of his name and lastly we are told of the possible consequences of what he is accused of that is if he is found guilty - the structure in the discourse is then a narrative of an arrest in a topic followed by identification of who the arrested is, that is a city councillor and the structure goes on to tell of the reasons for the arrest using different lexical words like, that shows that the narration flows, introducing one thing at a time the whole discourse is developed. 2b(b) Discourse conveys meaning. That is the whole discourse is conveying everything meaningfully because, we are introduced to the topic, which would be meaningless in away because we would just be told that city councillor is charged, but we would not anything more about him and what he tried to do or what he did but we get the whole meaning about the charge with *explainations> of why and he is charged and the result of that kind of deed, we also get to know that it was not him who was going to do with act of burning but that another man was caught hiding with a paraffin can in the telephone booth and so this discourse conveys meaning. Anybody who reads it can picture the context of the arrest and get the full meaning because everything is explained. We know that any councillors and mayors are high authorities in a town or city and mostly they are rivals and because of that one can easily take an *offense> at the remarks, such as explained in the discourse fragment. And we get the meaning of the offence that he tried to commit and having known that then we understand the charges he is likely to get if he is found guilty because as at now we know that he is just accused because he looked furious when a remark was made and there is no evidence apart from the man hiding with paraffin can that he is the one who did the offence. 2(c) Discourse accomplishes action. This means that the discourse is not only meaning full but it is complete too. because it gives the full message. Whatever is in the mind of the writer, it is communicated to the reader, NO reader of this discourse can ask anymore questions about whatever appeared in this paper voice because it is complete as it is. - Starting from the topic - Councillor charged with <*/>arsow - it goes right into why the councillor was charged and - then we are told his name - then we are even told of his age - 35 yrs which contributes to the meaning because we know he is a young man and we are told he made a remark on the councils bankruptcy and that they had been in disagreement with the mayor for a period of six months. Thus the discourse is complete and accomplishes actions because, it is not left hanging anywhere. We are given the background of the people we are dealing with and so we get also the meaning of the actions that are done in the discourse and also we get to know that it is complete accomplished. W1A017K Structural Linguistics Some languages were considered "dead" and others "living" while some were "sophisticated" and others "primitive". Many *linguistic> appeared to believe that the present-day language was in some sense "degenerate" and that the purest form of the language would be found in the recent past - especially in the works of prominent writers. We may therefore summarise the main views of traditional grammarians as follows: 1) Language is an organism: growth and change are of more interest than the static format was which might describe contemporary usage. This is what de Saussure later disagreed with and showed how a synchronic study is of more importance than a diachronic study. 2) Language is writing: The written record of the language is the "purest" form. Speech is secondary and to be restricted since it is ephemeral and being contemporary, degenerate. This view was later criticised by the American structuralists of the <*/>IGHOS when they studied non of unwritten languages. 3) Language is conventional: This means that language is invented and that even in its progressive advancement it is varied for the purposes of practical convenience. In terms of description of language, there were two major schools of thought in traditional linguistics: 1) The motion of universal grammar and the application of the principles of such a grammar in a particular language. This distinction is taken up by the Transformational Generative grammar. universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. Particular grammar applies those general principles to a particular language. However, the models of the "universal grammar" were Latin and to a lesser extent, Classical Greek and the inevitable result was that any lack of fitting between the ideal and the actual was treated as a mistake; and a further example of degeneration. Hence, in their analysis of English for example, traditional grammarians would on the "parts of speech" which may not necessarily fit into English. Speakers of English are warned not to end sentences with prepositions, the reason being that this cannot be done in Latin! The traditional grammarian produces "rules" and "explanations" when it comes to creating a grammar. These rules first to square with the facts of the rules of traditional grammar derive from logic (having inherited a lot of philosophy from earlier times). A rule may insist that two negatives make a positive which is an excellent logical or mathematical rule but when it comes to language, it cannot be applied: I haven't no money I have some money cannot mean the same thing in English. Many of the rules and explanations are incoherent e.g an object is described as "the term indicating the being or the object acted upon". This is a sentence like Jane hit Mary Mary is defined as the object. However it is not clear what Mary will be defined as in the passive form of the same sentence: Mary was hit by Jane. The *definations> of the so-called "parts of speech" are often vague and irrational. e g "a verb is a doing word", "a noun is the name of a person, a thing or place". We know that there are some nouns which don't refer to any of the above e. g "knowledge" "love", "kindness". In traditional grammar, the word rather than the sentence is the centre of analysis. This is because traditional grammarians focused on written material. Today, the word has been found wanting especially when it is known that in normal speech people do not use 'words' but rather chunks of speech. The traditional grammarians were only concurrent with "what words can combine with others to form sentences and in what order". Concepts such as "concord" and "government" were part of any linguistic description in traditional grammar. These have been borrowed and modified by Chomsky in his Government and Binding Theory. According to traditional grammar, concord is when a verb agrees with its subject in person and number. An adjective (in Latin) agrees with the noun it modifies in person, number, gender and case. Thus in Spanish (very similar to Latin) we have: una mujer gorda (a fat woman). un hombre gordo. (A fat man) In English, case can be established only for pronouns. The choice of case does not depend on the verb but on the function of the pronoun i e is it a subject (nominative) or an object (accusative)? In terms of language learning, traditional grammarians focused purely on "grammar" and this was inadequate since it secured that the written code was the norm; the learner was already in possession of the general rules of the language and therefore required a prescription of structures and forms to be avoided rather than description of what was permitted. Where the grammar attempted to describe its categories were so ambiguous that the "explanations" were mere confusion. The description in most cases emphasized morphology to the virtual exclusion of syntax and so deprived the learner of the knowledge he needed to create sentences for speaking. It was this learning of "rules" rather than performing the language that led to the structuralist emphasis on practice rather than explanations and prescription. EARLY MODERN LINGUISTS These were the linguists who came immediately after the 19th century. They include especially de Saussure and grammarians like Jespersen. During this period, the physical sciences were beginning to assert themselves as models of scientific endeavour. The linguist would answer the question "what is language?" by comparing it with physical objects. He would avoid reference in his description as earlier stages of the development of the language - the diachronic approach - and would attempt to explain the language synchronically ie by reference to its present structure. This view combined with the intention of making linguistics a purely objective and descriptive science necessarily had an emphasis on the contemporary language and a refusal to accept that it was inferior to earlier forms. Saussure considered language to be a social fact. This view was influenced by Durkheim's sociological theories. A language is a "thing" whose data can be obsessed. He came up with two elements of language - Parole - speaking- and Langue- the general system of language. The concrete data of parole are produced by individual speakers; langue however exists only written in collectivity - this language is a "product of the collective mind of linguistic groups". Its><+_It's> Saussure's view of language as a social fact and the related distinction between langue and parole which have become a live issue because of a conflicting view put forward by Chomsky in his distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky identifies his notion of competence with Saussure's langue. But there is a crucial difference. Chomsky's competence is an attribute of the individual, a psychological matter. He defines competence as "the speaker - hearer's knowledge of his language." For Chomsky therefore the individual's idiolect is primary while for Saussure the opposite is true: "Language ... exists perfectly only within a collectivity". To Saussure, language comprises a set of "signs" each sign being the union of a significant (portion of speech sound) and the 'signifikat' (portion of meaning). Signs cannot be considered in isolation since both their pronunciation and their meaning are defined by their contrasts with the other signs in the system. Saussure's distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships in language have led two emphases in current schools of linguistics. In America for example, their interest is in syntagmatic relations ie the way in which linguistic units can be construed into larger constructions. Europeans concentrate on paradigmatic relations ie the relationships between elements that can substitute for one another in the same "slot" in a linguistic structure. Saussure's argument that the nature of a linguistic element depends on the elements with which it contrasts forces one to consider paradigms to relationships. Hence his influence is greater in Europe than in America. The linguistics practised today therefore owes an intellectual debt to the great linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. He is in fact the founder of structural linguistics which grew slowly after his death. It was to be formed in academic centres such as in Prague and in America. Three key elements of the linguistics of Saussure's period are: 1) Language is a system: Each element of the language has a value only in terms of the ones under which it operates and in relation to all other elements. 2) Language is speech: The written system is no more than a crude approximation to the spoken language; it is secondary and derivative. 3) Language is conventional: There was some social agreement on language hence language is "a social fact". The linguists of the period were therefore in direct conflict with the views of the traditional grammarians. It is true that these ideas which derive from the scholarship of people like de Saussure form the starting point from which linguistics set out to describe and explain language. With regard to language learning, early modern linguists concentrated on teaching grammatical structures rather than isolated words and an attempt was made to grade items and structures in terms of their "easiness" and "usefulness". Today, this has had an effect on syllabus design. The commitment to the primacy of speech led to an emphasis on pronunciation as the foundation of learning. Teaching was no longer prescriptive as in traditional grammar period. STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS Structural linguistics arose in the 1930s as a result of two needs felt by the academic community in the USA. First, there was a general feeling of dissatisfaction with "traditional" grammar and secondly, linguists in the Americas were faced by a practical problem: the description and the preservation of the native Indian languages before they literally died out. Field workers such as Boas and Sapir discovered that the structures of the American Indian languages were utterly different from those of Europe and traditional grammar was quite unable to promote the kind of analysis required. This kind of analysis was advanced by different structuralists of the time: Franz Boas gathered a lot of information about American Indian languages. He used a method of analysis that did not impose the grammatical categories of Indo-European languages upon all other languages. He worked at his own scheme for the orderly description of languages which called for three basic divisions in the description: 1) the phonetics of the language 2) the meaning categories expressed in the language 3) the grammatical processes of combination and modification by which these meanings were expressed. He noted that the number of sounds which may be produced is unlimited. In our own language we select only a limited number of all the possible sounds. Unlike de Saussure, Boas focused on parole and therefore defined language as: "articulate speech". Besides having its own peculiar phonetic system, Boas held that each language has its own grammatical system. Boas insisted that we cannot impose the form of our language upon others. We must only look to see what kinds of forms the language uses and how it expresses relations among ideas. Boas concluded that the "national unit of expression is the sentence" and not the word. Boas considered the study of the grammatical categories peculiar to each language to be the most important task of the linguist, since the European grammarians had tended to assure that the categories of their own languages are universal, while his experience showed this to be false. The mistake of the traditional grammarians was to deal with all languages in terms of sole signification ignoring the difference in content. To Boas, while it is important to stress the difference among languages, it should not be done to such an extent as to suggest that they have nothing in common. This view is reinforced by Chomsky later. Eduard Sapir, another structuralist emphasized the relationship between thought and speech. He varied two ideas: 1) that language form can be studied for its own sake and 2) that meaning must be considered as the highest latent potential at each step of the analysis. He noted that there is a necessary connection between culture and language - "language does not exist apart from culture". Sapir and his student Whorf therefore came up with the so-called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Leonard Bloomfield reinforced Saussure's ideas on the scientific study of linguistics. He noted that the . W1A018K Discourse is language in use or language in function. In communicative discourse there should be a target audience or recipient. The recipient or receiver may be immediate, intended, particular or general. (a) For a speaker to achieve communicative purpose, certain things have to be taken into consideration. A speaker has the advantage of voice quality at his disposal. He/she can apply rhythm, tone/pitch, or stress, to achieve communication. This use of prosodic features will communicate what type of message and from how the speaker conveys it, the hearer can conclude the message. A speaker may be fast in rhythm to show that there is need for immediate action. For example: If a speaker says: "Call the doctor quickly." The way it is said may imply the action is be urgent. A speaker may use stress in an utterance to show the point of emphasis. For example if a speaker might say: "Lucy, come here." If the stress is on the last utterance then that is the point of emphasis. A speaker may also use other paralinguistic features, like gestures, body movements, facial expressions and postures to communicate a message. If a speaker for example says: "please do your work quietly", and he/she leans forward to the hearer and nearer the latter's ears, the message may be interpreted differently from when the same message is given by the speaker standing upright and pointing a finger at the hearer. The first postures and body movement by show the speaker is polite and may be doesn't want to embarrass the hearer, whereas the second may mean the speaker wants to embarrass the listener and even attract other people's attention. So use of paralinguistic features would also communicate a message. A speaker may also use extralinguistic features like silence to communicate a message. Silence by the speaker may mean he/she is not going to repeat what he has just said. For communicative purpose a speaker has to choose his/her words well so that whatever the utterance a message is communicative. This will include the choice of lexical items, and even the form. From words the hearer also gets a message. For example if the speaker addresses a group of females as: "You women," they will take offence as compared to "Ladies..." which would be appreciated. A speaker has to consider the context of the discourse before an utterance. This is necessary for communication because language occurs in a context and is context sensitive. For example if a speaker says: "Let us dance." in the middle of the streets, he/she may not communicate. (b) A writer will also achieve the communicative purpose if he/she takes certain things into consideration. A writer's choice of lexical items and syntactic structures will help him/her communicate. It is in the words that the writer will convey his message. He/she will use markers called letters to communicate. A write can also use paralinguistic features to achieve the communicative purpose. He/she can use a type of paper, bold letters, lower case, upper case, underline certain words, use italics and other linguistic attributes like punctuation. Words written in bold would imply emphasis, and would draw the reader's attention. This would also apply to underlined words and those in italics. Use of upper case would also draw attention of the reader. The size of the paper used by a writer also matters. For example, a small size poster may not draw attention of the readers but a big one would. The communicative purpose of a writer may depend on the context and the intended readers. A writer may choose to use simple straightforward language or complex language depending on the audience or readers. Coherence is discourse is what makes a text flow. It is what gives meaning to the discourse. If the discourse is a meaningful unit then it is coherent. The background knowledge of the discourse also makes the discourse coherent. Coherence will be achieved if there is knowledge about what could have come before the discourse or even after. With this background, one may get meaning out of the text, and if there is meaning then the discourse is coherent. Sequencing in discourse also brings coherence. There is need to know what has come before the next utterance. This would be in a dialogue. For example an utterance like "who is fish" may not make sense in isolation, but if the sequence of the dialogue is given, for instance in a hotel situation, it would communicate. Sequencing in a novel, for instance, is important for coherence. It is through the chapters and papers that the sequencing is done. This sequencing gives meaning. The totality of a discourse also brings coherence. Discourse is a complete text. A text is a complete meaningful unit. So the completeness of the text makes discourse coherent. This completeness can be achieved in one word like 'STOP' on a road sign or in a series of volumes. If the word 'STOP' gives meaning at the road, then it is coherent. The context in which the discourse occurs also gives it coherence. Language is context sensitive. Certain words or utterances used out of context will give a different meaning or no meaning at all. An example of this would be the 'STOP' sign. If it is just written on the blackboard, it may convey a totally different meaning or no meaning. There are categories of cohesive devices that create unity in a piece of text. Examples of these are: (i) Conjunctions (ii) Choice of lexical items (iii) Substitution (iv) Co-reference. i) Conjunctions are a cohesive device in the sense that they connect ideas in a discourse construction. They help the hearer or reader see the connection between what has been said and what is about to be said. This connection of ideas brings coherence. Conjunctions used in a discourse construction may be co-ordinating or sub-ordinating. The conjunctions may be additive, causal, temporal or adversitive. Additive conjunctions would add ideas to what has already been said. Examples of these are and, in addition to e.t.c). Causal conjunctions would should cause or reason in a discourse. Examples of these are, because, as a result e.t.c). Temporal conjunctions show time. For example, then, after that, finally e.t.c. Adversitive conjunctions show contrast, for example but however e.t.c). All the conjunctions depending on how they are used will give a text coherence. (ii) Choice of lexical items is also a cohesive device in the sense that the words chosen or used in a given text will help the reader or hearer interpret meaning. For example, the verbs in a text will be certain tenses. Tenses give the time in the discourse. It can be future, past or present tense. In discourse these is a tendency to use certain words with a common meaning for example, for gender, there will be the use of certain lexical items like she, her, princess, actress, e.t.c. (iii) Substitution is another cohesive device. It is the replacement of a word(s) by another without changing the meaning of the utterance or the sentence. Substitution helps avoid repetition especially in written discourse where grammatical roles are observed. For example, a speaker/writer instead of saying: "I have my birthday. My sister has her birthday" may say: I have my birthday and my sister has hers too." The lexical item hers has been used to substitute 'her birthday'. The reader/writer will still get meaning from the construction. (iv) Co-reference is also a cohesive device. Certain words are used to refer to certain things in any discourse construction. Halliday & Hassan group the co-references into two major categories- (1) Exophora (2) Endophora Exophora are those referent words that are used to refer to things directly without necessarily mentioning what the thing is. For example: an utterance like when one is pointing at the moon. "Look at that." 'That' refers to the moon in this utterance. Endophora has two sub-categories: (i) the anaphoric (ii) the cataphoric. The anaphoric referent refers to the pronominals used to refer back to something. For example: "The moon is up. It is shining bright." The 'it' refers back to the moon. The cataphoric would be giving a forward reference. For example: "It is shining bright, the moon." 'It' refers to the word 'moon' which comes later in the utterance. All these co-reference words give cohesion to a text. There are characteristics of a topic framework. The main ones are (1) Participants (2) Topic (3) Message/form/content (4) Event (5) Code (6) Channel (7) Setting (8) Purpose. (1) In a conversational discourse there has to be participants, the speaker and the hearer. There is need to know the relationship between the participants with regard to their age, the sex, their status in that context, e.t.c. The participants determinate what kind of the conversational discourse they are in. The participants who are of a peer group would have a different discourse from participants who have a big age difference. (2) The topic of the conversational discourse is also present in the sense that there is need to know what the participants in the discourse are talking about. This is a main characteristic in this kind of framework. Topic refers to what they are saying. In a conversational discourse, there may be more than one topic. The speakers may keep changing from one topic to another depending on the circumstances. (3) The message/form or content refers to the type of conversation. For instance is it an interview, is it a talk between two friends, is it a dialogue between a superior and a junior, e.t.c. (4) The event of the conversation discourse is also important. There is need to know during which event the conversation is taking place. Is it during a football match, is it in a classroom situation when teaching is going on e.t.c. The event is important because it also influences the conversation. The talk is bound to be based on the event at the time. The event could be local or global. (5) The code would refer to the way in which the message is relayed between the participants. They may use a dialect, standard language, native language e.t.c. (6) The channel through which the conversation takes place would be speech. (7) The setting is also a major characteristic. This would be with regard to place, and time. Where the participants are and at what time the conversation is taking place. (8) The purpose would refer to why the conversation is taking place. What is the purpose of the conversation. Is there anything the participants want to achieve and what is it. W1A019K 1) Discourse analysis examines how stretches of language, considered in the full textual social, psychological context become meaningful and verified for their users. Discourse therefore is generally defined as language in use or language in communication. As such certain assumption are made in Discourse analysis. (i) Language always occurs in a context. Language must take place in a given context. For example, social, cultural, cognitive, political and economic context language is used in a surrounding it is used in a given appropriate world view in respect to the user of the language. Language does not take place in a *vaccum> , it must have some background in which it takes place. For example A *circumscision> song occurs in a cultural context. The song is sung only when young men are to be *circumscised> according to the African culture. (ii) Language is context sensitive; language takes place in particular, specific and relevant context. Language is context sensitive because it takes place and it's used in *connectionally> accepted circumstances. For example the language in a church setting cannot be applied in a beer drinking session in a public bar. The assumption will be that the language in church has to be and remain in the context of the church. (iii) Language is always communicative. This means that when language is used it aims conveying some message. As such in discourse, a text can be a meaningful unit that has a complete message. It can be a word a cry, or a whole text book. A discourse item communicates a message either to a hearer or a reader. For example Ngugi wa Thiongo's A Grain of Wheat communicates something it carries some message in it's context. Ngugi in this case has used language to communicate, guilt conscience, betrayal, personal and public responsibility in his Novel. (iv) Language is designed for Communication. That means that language is manipulated, modified and applied to suit the purposes of conveying a message. Certain factors of style are employed to make language suitable for communication. For example in spoken texts, their is the use of paralinguistic features texture, like, facial expression, prosodic features, to suit the purpose of communication. Language in this context is made richer or more complex for interpretation, this interpretation can result from, contextual features, or linguistic features of a text. Language design can either be written or spoken depending on the purpose of communication. Consider the word stop! on the side of the road. To a car-driver it is designed to convey the message that there is no proceeding. It's designed by the exclamation mark to mean imperatively that the car must stop for a certain reason. 2 (a) In Discourse we have the spoken type of discourse and the written type of discourse. There is a relationship between the spoken type of discourse and the written. The two use contextual features for communication. Both the written and the spoken use paralinguistic features for communication. The spoken discourse employs prosodic features like <*/>stummening, pitch, and intonation where as the written employs paralinguistic features like typography, handwriting. The spoken and written discourse use language as a means of communication; as a medium of communication. And obviously both written and spoken discourse are purposely designed for communication purposes, they are a means of delivering messages. Let us consider the contrast between the written and spoken discourse, in the written discourse there is no pressure in production, the writer takes his time to construct, chose and decide on the kind of sentence to appear on his paper. He can erase where necessary. While in the spoken discourse the speaker is under pressure to produce utterances, for an *interlocuter> who is ready to listen, the speaker is forced to be very careful and is highly concentrated on the language he uses. The spoken discourse is usually not pressured, lest on tape recording, the written discourse undergoes, printing and therefore is stored for a long time . The written discourse is produced in the privacy of the writer, while the spoken discourse is produced before and *interlocuter>. In the spoken discourse the speaker gets immediate feedback, while in the written the writer gets feedback after along time and a difference in space and process. In the written discourse their is the use of *metalingual> features like, joining of clauses, use of temporal markers, like meanwhile, during, in the meantime, Their is also keen use of premodification, conscious employment and structures like subject/predicate, Topic, Comment. These are not common in the spoken discourse, where a speaker makes subordinate sentences, incomplete sentences and *gapefillers> like -em, well -ahh, etc. (b) (a) Discourse forms structures: This implies that discourse is arranged with certain syntactic structure, combined with propositional content to establish linearity. The discourse fragment given: Councillor charged with arson (The voice march 12th, 1984): The title is given with paragraphs. The paragraphing is employed in such a way that each paragraph distinctly has some space from the *preceeding> paragraph. The structured is also formed by an introduction body and conclusion. In the first line, we know that it's the title; and probably the councillor was in a court of law, and the article is reported in the mass media. Then, A city councillor ... was here today This begins with A capital letter; and end with a full stop. The line Beginning Kwanza Mango, is a thematic beginning, to make the point of departure and also to lay a foundation for the proceeding words explaining more about the man. The structure therefore has a topic and a comment or theme and the rheme. In the last sentence, we see given information and New information: :- If found guilty the councillor faces dismissal from councillor shop. The underlined is the new information. Generally Discourse in this fragment has also formed structure, by employing cohesive devices. The cohesiveness is seen by the chronological or the *sequency> of events to form a 'whole' structure. (b) Discourse convey meanings. In this case, discourses implies, infers, some meaning by uses of certain lexical items. A *noticable> use of the deictic form - Here, implies that it is the city in which, that councillor was charged, and the Newspaper has its headquarters in that particular city. The other meaning that is conveyed is that Kwanza Mango was not responsible for the arson case, but it's because he had a grudge with the city mayor. The implicature (commentional) shows it was somebody else, and that it was an attempted arson, because the man was caught before the offence was committed. The other conveyed meaning is that Kwanza Mango will receive a fair trial. (c) Discourse accomplishes actions: This is the pragmatic property, where language is practically reflected in use. Discourse therefore accomplishes this property by the practicability of its language. From the fragment we know that a man was put before a court of law, by the use of the action verb - charged. The use of the past tense - was arrested also accomplishes the action performed on the man. the verb actions of, hiding, told, dismissal, all imply that an activity has taken place or will take place against someone, or between two people. 3 (a) In discourse we have to consider contextual features that would assist in the analysis of discourse fragments. I will mention them in passing, participants, their characteristics place, time, setting, The purpose under what activities in the discourse taking place; channel what means of context are used is it written or spoken, code, is it English, Kiswahili, or a dialectical form context, use of Deictic forms, textual features and linguistic features, [...] message conveyed. Let me now consider the following discourse fragments. (i) Let us pray: This is appropriate in a religious gathering context, the place would be a church, or in a house before meals when family members pray before meals. If the place is church, the possible participants are a congregation and a priest leading the mass. Its on Sunday during service; The purpose is that this is a community and they are sharing the word of God. The lexical item thus[??] implies that this is a community united religiously and almost residing from the same locality. The participants are now silent and prepared for a silent prayer or a led prayer. (ii) The 6 o'clock train... The participants are a Railway station announcer; The announcer is making an announcement to *commiters> who have booked tickets to use the 6 o'clock train. We are told that the six o'clock train is standing on platform two. The time is evening or morning, so we are told that the place is a railway station by the lexical item - platform two. The purpose is to make aware the *commiters>of their coaches and numbers. The *commiters> should be aware that the train has just arrived - by the use of - Now and the *commiters> should immediately go ahead to check their coach numbers. (iii) Attention! No Smoking! This could be a writing in a matatu or a sensitive public place like a hotel, office, The participants are the owners of the matatu and those people who could be smokers or tempted to smoke and generally people who are using the matatu. The time is, whenever a person uses the matatu, or its always the order, at no one time should anyone smoke from that particular place. The purpose, its a warning to avoid danger or for health reasons. That is shown by the textual features of the exclamative marks (!) (iv) Want to sell your car 'on hold' until it is sold? It's so simple. The participants are businessmen. A business - car dealer and the owner of the car. The characteristics of the participants are that the car owner is ignorant of the process that is followed, the car dealer is familiar. It's during office time in a company premise. The purpose is that the car is being sold in terms of on hold until a suitable buyer is found. (v) The participants are auctioneers, advertising in a newspaper, or on a Notice board to members of the public that property would sold to those interested. The time would be on 28th April 1986, the place would be at the premises of the auctioneers; 'in front of our premises'. The purpose is to make every member of the public aware, so that those who are interested can buy the assorted goods. (b) The topic of a discourse fragment may be identify by: One, the beginning identification of the lexical features that are prominently used in the discourse fragment. For example if its a topic on gender the use of the pronoun, he or her will be pronounced. The channel of communication, this would consider The way the message has been conveyed written or spoken. Co-text; Consideration of the events that take place, an analyst would look at events going on other than the overall events. Another way would be paragraphing and arrangement of ideas in the discourse fragment. Look at the physical context and the background in which the discourse fragment occurs. Who is the participant, where is it taking place. (ii) A fragment of a conversational discourse can be analysed with the following characteristics in mind - (a) Who are the participants, this also tells us the place, time and the setting where the conversation takes place - (b) Purpose, What is the purpose of the conversational discourse, are the participants in a church on Sunday, watching a football match? - (c) Channel - What is the context used to convey the message, is it spoken or written. - (d) Code - Which language is used. English or Kiswahili, is it a dialect or the standard language - (e) Context, the lexical and linguistic features used in the conversation, Is there use of Deictic forms, Here, there etc. - (f) Event - Which event is taking place in the conversation - (g) What is the message being conveyed or implied in the conversation taking place? W1A020K DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Que. 3a) Discourse is made *coherant> by the unity that we get in any fragment, that is the flow of words that give it its texture. Choice of words that are joined to make a complete sentence that is meaningful, the sentences that make paragraphs. Discourse can also be *coherant> even without use of any words for example "you naughty ... it will make meaning despite the silence and that shows silence can *creat> coherence. Organisation of the discourse also can make it *coherant> when events are organised in such a way as to be meaningful. Use of some grammatical words that *creat> *coherant> in a piece of discourse for example words like meanwhile, therefore this tries to show unity to the discourse. Correct lexical elements that is choosing the right words in a piece of discourse. One has also to think of the syntactic organisation or rule in any kind of message if it has to be meaningful and *coherant>. b. In a discourse construction, there are cohesive devices that *creat> unity in a piece of text One of these is the use of conjunctions. The use of conjunctions like, yet, but, these are grammatical words which when used to join sentences bring unity in this sentences. For example sentences like "Mary went to the market "John went to school, use of conjunction "and" makes the two one "Mary went to the market and John to school." *Elipsis> also can be used to *creat> unity in a text of discourse construction. *Elipsis> is method of eliminating some words in a sentences to prevent repetition in them, for example in sentences given above that is "Mary went to the market and John went to school" In *elipsis> we eliminate the second "went" that Mary went to the market and John to school instead of Mary went to the market and John went to school. *Elipsis> are also common in question tags also to avoid repetition for example "The class made noise, didn't they? instead of "The class made noise, didn't they make noise? So we omit the "make noise" on the tag. Substitution is another device that is used in order to *creat> unity in a discourse construction. This is substituting a pronoun for a Noun Phrase, so instead of writing a Noun Phrase especially if it had been mentioned earlier, we substitute with a pronoun for example "Jane was a first year student last year and this year She is a second year." instead of saying Jane was a first year student last year and this year Jane is a second year. So the second noun Phrase is replaced by the pronoun "she". The fourth device used to *creat> unity in a discourse construction is use of correct lexical items this is use of words that show relationship for example if it is something connected with school institution the words like Headmaster, teacher, students, chalk are all in the same line and no word that is out of that group. Different devices can appear in a sentence at the same time. Qu.2 a He will use correct grammatical sentences in his writing unlike in spoken record whereby we sometimes come across sentences that are not grammatical. Written record of a discourse will contain complete sentences to bring out the full message to the readers so that they can understand the message in a piece of discourse and when we get texts that contain complete sentences and no shortening of words for example "They'll go home next week instead of They will go home next week then we realize that this is an adequate representation of a text as a written record of discourse. Written record of discourse will contain correct grammatical sentences whereby all rules of grammar are kept for example in starting of any new message there is use of capital letter, to start a new paragraph the writer indents at least an inch from the margin. We usually do not come across a lot of common vocabulary but there are new vocabularies that we come across. There is use of connecting markers that are common in any written record of discourse construction for example meanwhile, therefore. Hesitation markers are not very common and there is correct punctuation. We don't notice any kind of interruption, the sentences are given in complete words and messages follow in a cohesive manner. b) A written transcription of spoken discourse is an inadequate representation of a verbal record of a communication act because In written transcription the writer is not able to show exactly the reactions of the speaker when he was speaking and so this does not fully give the exact behaviour of the spoken discourse since the written discourse transcription lacks the audience and so the message written may not carry as much weight as it would have been if the speaker was there for example in the hospital when the doctor diagnoses the sickness of a particular patience and the message is transfered, the real behaviour and reaction of the sick person is not known to the reader of the message. Some features that help one to *interprete> a particular discourse are lost in the action of writing it for example the paralinguistic features that accompany the spoken discourse. Things like coughs, smiles, sneers are lost in the process of writing. As it is being written, the readers may not be able to question the message or if it needs clarification. Many times the message is misquoted and instead of giving the correct message, usually the wrong message is written and that is why even in our Society we hear many Politicians saying that they were misquoted. As the message is being written things like gestures are lost which were clear in the spoken discourse. The written transcription does not get the feedback straight away since he lacks audience and he is writing at the privacy of his room and can write according to his understanding and not necessarily what had been said. It looses relationship, because when it was being spoken there was actual interaction of speaker and listener but this misses when it comes to writing the same message. When being spoken, it has particular audience and context but when it is being written the audience that it has was intended is lost and now it can be read by anybody whether it makes meaning or not. Compulsory question Que. 1) A speaker must have an actual or intended audience in order to communicate, He cannot communicate to nobody. The speaker has to organize the message he wants to communicate He has to choose his words correctly to avoid misunderstanding. When he starts to communicate his use of prosodic features is important in the sense that he has to have voice variation, some words will be pronounced softly, others loudly and the rhythm and intonation should help in achieving his communicative purpose. He should show the high points in his messages by variation of voice. In speech the speaker tries to draw attention of the listener by use of words like "Do you know? Have you heard? By the way?" and in this then the speaker is able to communicate his message with success. When the speaker also questions and asks for the views of the listener this shows that that the communication will be effective since there will be response. The context of the communication is very important for example if one wants to communicate something connected to church like saying "Let us pray" if it is said in a bar, it might not achieve the communicative purpose because it is in the wrong context. The type of register used by different people is a method that would show effect to those being communicated to for example one meets the Rector and says Hey in this case one should use formal language and so different people use different types of registers in their communication. The reaction of the listeners to the speaker Their expressions (facial) will show the speaker whether he is communicating or not. b) A writer will use different types of writing for example Roman writing, Chinese in the writing of the particular people he is writing to so that he will be able to communicate. He will show the importance of some messages by using type face, bold face, his use of capital letters (higher case) and small letters (lower case) and in all this he is drawing readers interest to see the most important messages he wants to communicate for example the writings that we see on News Papers Headlines use of bold clear letters to draw the leaders attention and interest to buy the papers and know what is happening. When the writer sends questionnaires to the readers, he wants to hear and see the views of his readers and this can help him know that he has communicated or not. Context too is necessary for example if one wants to communicate something that is in written form, the place where this message will be pinned will determine whether it will be communicative or not for example a notice stating a college meeting that CVEA for all students and this is pinned in the forest may not be communicative there. When the speakers show response in the message that has been given in writing for example in an examination the instructions are written down so when the students follow these instructions, it shows that the message has been communicated and purpose achieved. W1A021K 1.1 Importance of Educational Psychology to teachers. - It enables teachers to know the stages of development of the pupils so that he knows how or the method of teaching different levels. - It enables the teacher to know some of the misbehaviours he expects from students of which level so when this arises he is in a position to handle it. - It enables the teacher to know some of the activity he should in-cooperate in the teaching strategy so as not to bore and frustrate the students - It enables them to know what is expected of them as teachers so that they do their work effectively. - It enables them to know how to create attitudes, mood and values of the students so that they understand what he is teaching and also teach them how to motivate and reinforce the students for effectiveness. 1.2 Application - By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to draw the map of Kenya and insert all the main towns. Organising - By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to tell the *intensions> of the main characters in the comprehension in discussion Sound Production - By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to differentiate the pronunciation of 'chips' and 'ships' 1.3 Identification It's defence mechanism whereby someone wants to associate himself with someone who is high ranked, beautiful, courageous, hero. For instance someone would want to associate himself with the President like they are related or a man to associate himself with 'Miss Kenya' Projection If another defence mechanism whereby someone tries to hide his behaviour with another's. For instance if someone has copied an exam, he may start saying that some people were copying the exam or if a teacher knows he is ineffective in his teaching, he may start saying that some teachers do not know how to teach. 1.4. Screening test It's one of the methods of testing *exceptionary> children. Here one tries to get *exceptionary> children from a large group of children. The *exceptionary> children are therefore taken to a separate school may be where they will be taught independently. Diagnostic testing Here one wants to confirm whether a child is exceptional and the seventy of the impairment. The child may be left in the same group but given special attention or can be taken to a special school. 2.1. Four safety needs & educational strategy for each. - Security from outsiders The school must be well fenced so that the outsiders cannot come to the school illegally or unknown. There should also be doors locks to the dormitories - Money The students should not be allowed to carry with them large amounts of money to the school. School fees should be send through the banks in cheques. In the school, they should also be allowed to keep their money safely like with the bursar so that its' not stolen by other students. - Personal Security The school should have rules and regulations as per the behaviour of students towards others so that newcomers are not bullied by old students. Such cases should be dealt with categorically by prefects and authority - Health Services There should be adequate health services in the school. There need to be a dispensary or health clinic in the school so that the students don't suffer from minor illnesses and have nowhere to go. 2.2. Inter-variations It is a word that refers to the differences *occuring> between learners in a class. These can be physical, social, religious, racial to mention but a few. For instance if class may consist of learners of various tribes with various cultural differences like Kikuyus, Kambas, Luos the teacher should not favour any of these groups. He should be bias on culture but try to show them that they are all alike and no culture is inferior to another Intra-variations. This refers to interests of a particular learner. The likes and dislikes within an individual. For instance A student may be very much interested in mathematics but dislike literature. In such a case, if the teacher is teaching literature try to make the lesson very interesting and *incase> of giving an assignment encourage the learner to finish his work for literature so as to do some work in Mathematics. 5.1. Reinforcement is a method of controlling behaviour in the classroom. It should be done very effectively. There is negative and positive reinforcement. A teacher should try as much as he can to avoid negative reinforcement because it encourages the learner to shy off next time and he will rarely answer questions in class or ask questions. For instance when Mary is asked a question and then she answers wrongly or may be gives an irrelevant answer, the teacher can tell her that she has tried but not to tell her that she has been daydreaming. She is likely to answer another question if she is given the first response then when given the second one. Reinforcement should be done immediately after the response but not postponed to a later time. This is usually more effective because the learner will tend to correct himself right-away. In a co-education, both boys and girls should be reinforced alike so that some people may not think there is favoritism. Punishment on the other hand is another method of controlling behaviour. It is not the best so should not be used frequently. It should only be used when its inevitable. It tends to suppress or fix behaviour instead of stopping it. It may also have negative repercussions like the learner developing hatred to the teacher. If it is to be used, it should be very mild and only to the extreme characters. This can be by withdrawing some privileges previously granted, or some punishments like letting the student part with some of his pocket money or be left behind as others go home for holidays should be avoided. Punishment should be used only as the last option. Reinforcement is more preferable to punishment. 5.2. Minimise the frustration of learners. - the teacher should set questions for the learners from whatever they have learned. If the work is above their level of understanding it should be postponed to a later time. - If the work is difficult he can also encourage them to do in groups so as to discuss and get better answers. - He should avail to the learners textbooks to refer to or get for them hand-outs so that they read during their free time and understand if there is shortage of textbooks or reference books. Improve classroom climate. - The learners should be encouraged to discuss some problems but not leave someone to decide or think on his own. This makes them live in a free atmosphere in the classroom hence are ready to participate. - The teacher must ensure that there is adequate lighting in the classroom - He must ensure that there is enough air circulation so that the room is not stuffy. This is by making sure that the room is clean and the windows can easily be opened to let air in. Deal with the unexpected. The unexpected can be lightning, thunderstorms, a snake in the class and so many others. This only needs the use of common sense. *Incase> of lightning or thunderstorms, since some students are afraid of them, *incase> he had given some homework he must give them some more time. - *Incase> of a snake, the teacher should let the learners move out first but not force them to stay in the classroom. - However this will depend on the situation. For worse situations he can call other teachers to assist. 6.1 Four reason for assessing exceptional children. - It enables the teacher to set a programme for instruction that will be suitable to them. - It enables the researchers to know the prevalence of *exceptionary> child and may be look for ways of minimising this. - It enables the teacher to know to handle such children so that they don't have low self-concept. - It enables the curriculum setters may be to increase individual education programmes so that these people feel that they fit in the society. This also enables them to know the demand of special schools so that they get ways of building them. 6.2. Four advantages of labelling exceptional children -> It enables the teachers to prepare a teaching method may be which will favour them for instance if they are visual impaired he can be spelling most of the words. -> It enables the government to know the number of the cases hence look for ways of handling them. -> It enables them to be considered *incase> of funds to be given to them and be helped in their education. -> It enables them to be taken to their own special schools where they can be taken care of nicely as a group or they are taken to meet other people with the same problem so that they know they are not the only ones who are disadvantaged. Four limitations of labelling exceptional children. - It makes them have a low concept of themselves since majority of the people are not like that. - To them the labelling may have been poorly done so that they are taken to the wrong group. - It makes them feel very *disadvateged> and hence be very much worried of what will happen to them in future - They may think they are isolated in away, that's why they've been labelled exceptional and may be they wouldn't like the other people to know that they have some impairments.